MD. HASIF SINHA

BASIC PHARMACY

The Key Concepts of Pharmacy

Edited by:

Md. Hasif Sinha
M.Pharm (MS in Pharmaceutical Technology)

P H A R M A C Y

Pharmacy: Pharmacy derived its name from the word “Pharmakon” means “A Drug”. Pharmacy is concerned with the manufacture, formulation, quality control, and dispensing of medicaments used to treat disease. The majority of modern medicaments consist of tablets, capsules, and injections, all produced under stringent conditions. 
Usually only a tiny part of the product is active drug, the rest being the ‘excipients’ which provides an appropriate vehicle for delivery to the patient.
• The art and science of preparing and dispensing drugs 
• Place where drugs are dispensed
Pharmacist: Who is educated about pharmacy, prepare medicine by processing drug, give information to the public & dispense drugs.
Mission of Pharmacy: The mission of pharmacy is to serve society as the profession responsible for the appropriate use of medications, devices, and services to achieve optimal therapeutic outcomes.
Pharmaceutical Care: The components of pharmacy practice which entails the direct interaction of the pharmacist with the patient for the purpose of caring for that patient’s drug-related needs. 
Careers of the Pharmacist:

1. Production & Manufacturing
2. Research & Development
3. Analysis & Testing
4. Marketing
5. Hospital Pharmacy
6. Community Pharmacy
7. Academics
8. Regulatory Affairs
9. Documentation, Library Information Services & Pharma
10. Journalism
11. Consultancy
12. Opportunities
13. Abroad

Drug: A chemical substance used in the treatment, cure, prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise enhance physical or mental well-being.
Crude Drug: Natural substances of plant, animal or mineral origin; which process therapeutic properties & pharmacological actions & which have undergone no treatment other than collection & drying.
Official Drugs: 
• Current issue of the pharmacopoeia of a country
• Official used for therapeutic purpose
Un-Official Drugs: 
• Recognized as a drug in the pharmacopoeia
• No current issue of pharmacopoeia of a country
Non-Official Drugs: 
• Possesses some medicinal properties
• Unofficially used for therapeutic purposes
• Never include in the pharmacopoeia
Synthetic Drug: The term ‘synthetic drug’ strictly refers to Psychoactive substances that are manufactured through a chemical process in which the essential psychoactive constituents are not derived from naturally occurring substances.

Prodrugs: Prodrug is a term used to describe a compound that requires metabolic biotransformation after administration to produce the desired pharmacologically active compound. The conversion of an inactive prodrug to an active compound occurs primarily through enzymatic biochemical clevage.
Medicine: Medicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness.
Any drug which has a definite dosage form, dose, therapeutic mode of action and used for the treatment of disease is called medicine. 
Medication: A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition, or may be used as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms.
Dispensing of Medication: It is often regulated by governments into 3 categories — 
i. Over the Counter (OTC) Medications, which are available in pharmacies and supermarkets without special restrictions 
ii. Behind the Counter (BTC) Medications, which are dispensed by a pharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription
iii. Prescription only Medicines (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional, usually a physician
Systemic Medications: Systemic drug therapy involves treatment that affects the body as a whole or that acts specifically on systems that involve the entire body, such as the cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, or nervous systems. Psychiatric disorders also are treated systemically.
Dosage Form: A dosage form is the physical form in which a drug is produced and dispensed, such as a tablet, a capsule, or an injectable. 
Loading Dose: Initial dose used to maintain plasma-drug concentration.
Maintenance Dose: Dose used to regulate plasma-drug concentration.
Standard Dose: Generally usable for all patients.
In vivo: In vivo refers to experimentation using a whole, living organism as opposed to a partial or dead organism. Animal testing and clinical trials are two forms of in vivo research.
In vitro: In vitro refers to the technique of performing a given procedure in a controlled environment outside of a living organism.
Pharmacopoeia: An official publication which lists various drugs & therapeutic agents of current use with their monographs & specifies tests & standards for them (e.g. BP, USP, AP, IP).
Hospital Pharmacy: A department of hospital which deals with procurement, storage, compounding, dispensing, manufacturing, testing, packaging & distribution of drugs.
Drug Discovery:
• Choose a disease [company’s market strategists]
• Choose a drug target [receptor, enzyme or nucleic acid]
• Identify a bioassay [in vitro, in vivo, High throughput screening, Screening by NMR, Affinity screening]
• Find a lead compound
• Isolate and purify the lead compound if necessary
• Determine the structure of the lead compound if necessary
Drug Design:
• Identify Structure Activity Relationships
• Identify the pharmacophore
• Improve Pharmacodynamics properties 
• Improve Pharmacokinetic properties 
Drug Development:
• Patent the drug
• Carry out preclinical trials [pharmacology studies, drug metabolism, toxicology, formulation and stability tests etc]
• Design a manufacturing process [chemical and process development]
• Carry out clinical trial
• Register and market the drug
• Make money
Rx: An uppercase R with its tail crossed, and was used as an abbreviation for the Latin word recipe = "take" (imperative), i.e. an instruction to the pharmacist to take the items listed in order to prepare the medicine. When printing came, it was rendered as "Rx".

P H A R M A C E U T I C S

Pharmaceutics:
 An understanding of the basic physical chemistry necessary for the efficient design of dosage form (Physical Pharmaceutics)
 The design & formulation of medicines (Dosage form design)
 The manufacturing of these medicines on both a small (Compounding) scale & large (Pharmaceutical Technology) scale
 The cultivation avoidance & elimination of microorganisms in medicines (Microbiology)
 Pharmaceutics = Design + Formulation
Purification of a substance by Crystallization:
 Mixing
 Filtration
 Evaporation
 Centrifugation
Manufacture of a mixed powder:
 Mixing
 Size reduction
 Size separation
Manufacture of a drug extract:
 Mixing
 Size reduction
 Extraction
 Evaporation
 Drying
 Size separation
 Distillation
PRINCIPLE OF PHARMACEUTICAL PROCESSING

Particle Size Reduction
Communication, reduction of the particle size of a solid substance to a finer state, is used to facilitate crude drug extraction, increase the dissolution rates of a drug, aid in the formulation of pharmaceutically acceptable dosage forms, and enhance the absorption of drugs. 
 The surface area is increased by particle size reduction.
Particle Size Separation
Solid separation is a process by which powder particles are removed from gases or liquids, and has two main aims:
 To remove valuable products or byproducts
 To prevent environmental pollution
Powder Flow
The largest use of powders pharmaceutically is to produce tablets and capsules. Together with mixing and compression properties, the flow ability of a powder is of critical importance in the production of pharmaceutical dosage form. 
Particle Properties:
 Adhesion: Attraction between different particles (e.g. between a particle & a hopper wall)
 Cohesion: Attraction between similar particles.
Mixing
A unit operation that aims to treat two or more components, initially in an unmixed or partially mixed state, so that unit (particle, molecule etc) of the components lies as nearly as possible in contact with a unit of each of the other components. Theoretically ideal mixture is called perfect mix. 
Types of mixture: There are 3 types of mixture.
 Positive mixture: Positive mixtures are formed materials such as gases or miscible liquids which mix spontaneously and irreversibly by diffusion, and tend to approach a perfect mix.
 Negative mixture: With negative mixture the components will tend to separate out. Generally more difficult to form and maintain and require a higher degree of mixing efficiency. E.g: Emulsions, Creams, and viscous suspensions.
 Neutral mixture: Static in behavior, i.e. the components have no tendency to mix spontaneously. E.g: Powders, Pastes, Ointments.
Milling
Milling is the mechanical process of reducing the particle size of solid. Various terms such as crushing, disintegration, dispersion, grinding, and pulverization have been used synonymously with communication depending on the product, the equipment, and the process. 
Milling equipments is classified as coarse, intermediate, or fine according to the size of milled products.
Types of Mills: Hammer Mill, Ball Mill, Fluid-Energy Mill, Roller Mill, Colloid Mill  
Drying: The removal of liquid from a material by the application of heat, and is accomplished by the transfer of a liquid from a surface into an unsaturated vapor phase. 
Drying is most commonly used in- 
 Preparation of granules
 Processing of materials
 Preparation of powder extracts
 Reduce bulk & weight
 Increase stability rate of the product
Types of Dryer:
 Convective Drying for Wet Solids
 Fixed Bed Convective Drying
 Dynamic Convective Drying
 Conductive Drying for Wet Solids
 Vacuum Oven
 Vacuum Tumbling Drier
 Rotation Drying of Wet Solids
 Radiant heat transmission
 The use of microwave radiation
 Driers for Dilute Solution & Suspension
 Drum Dryer
 Spray Dryer
 Freeze Drying for Heat-Sensitive Materials
Relative Humidity: 
RH= (Vapour pressure of water vapour in the air × 100%)/█(Vapour pressure of water vapour in air saturated at the same temp.@)
Compression & Consolidation of Powdered Solids: The physics of compaction stated that “the compression & consolidation of a two-phase (solid - gas) system due to the applied force.”
 Compression: A reduction in the bulk volume of the material as a result of displacement of the gaseous phase.
 Consolidation: An increase in the mechanical strength of the material resulting from particle-particle interactions.
Pharmaceutical Rheology
Rheology: Rheology is the study of flow, addresses the viscosity characteristics of powders, fluids, and semisolids. Materials are divided into two main categories, 
 Newtonian flow is characterized by constant viscosity, regardless of the shear rates applied. 
 Non-Newtonian flow is characterized by a change in viscosity characteristics with increasing shear rates.
Rheologic measurements are utilized to characterize the ease of pouring from a bottle, squeezing from a tube or other deformable container, maintaining product shape in a jar or after extrusion, rubbing the product onto & into the skin, and even pumping the product from mixing & storage to filling equipment. 
Viscosity: Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. The study of viscosity is known as rheology.
Velocity: Velocity is the rate of change of position in time.
Stoke’s Law of Velocity:
 v = ( 2r2g(σ-ρ))/9η
Here, v = velocity, r = radius, g = gravitational force, σ = density of disperse phase, �� = density of dispersion medium, �� = viscosity
Bulk Density: Bulk density is a property of powders, granules and other "divided" solids, especially used in reference to soil. It is defined as the mass of many particles of the material is divided by the total volume they occupy. The total volume includes particle volume, inter-particle void volume and internal pore volume.
 Bulk density = (Mass of oven dry soil )/(Core volume)
 
Clarification
Clarification is a process that involves the removal or separation of a solid from a fluid from other fluid.  
 Fluid = Liquids o/r Gases. 
Types of Clarification:
 Filtration
 Centrifugation
In pharmaceutical processing there are two main reasons for such processes:
 To remove unwanted solid particles from either a liquid product or from air
 To collect the solid as the product itself (e.g. following crystallization)
Filtration: The separation of an insoluble solid, from a fluid by means of a porous medium that retains the solid but allows the fluid to pass.
Filter medium: The porous membrane which is allows the liquid to flow but retains solid.
Filter cake: Solids accumulated on the filter.
Filtrate: Clear liquid passing through the filter.
Slurry: Mixture of solid and liquid to be filtered.
 Theory of Filtration: 
 Rate = (Driving force)/Resistance
 Poiseuille’s Equation, dv/dT = AP/(µ(αW/(A+R)))
Types of Filtration:
 Solid-Fluid Filtration
 Solid-Liquid Filtration
 Solid-Gas Filtration
 Fluid-Fluid Filtration
Centrifugation: Centrifugal force can be either to provide the driving force for the filtration process or to replace the gravitational force in sedimentation processes.
Theory of Centrifugal Force:
 F/G = 2π2n2d/g = 2.013 n2d
Sedimentation: Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension or molecules in solution to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to rest against a wall. These forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism.
Factors affecting Sedimentation:
 Brownian Movement
 Size of particle
 Viscosity of the medium
 Gravity
Pellet: Material that has accumulated on the bottom of a tube after centrifugation is called pellet.
Supernatant: The overlying fluid is called the supernatant solution or simple the supernatant.

PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORM DESIGN

Preformulation
Each drug substance has intrinsic chemical and physical characteristics that must be considered before the development of a pharmaceutical formulation. Among these are the drug’s solubility, partition coefficient, dissolution rate, physical form, and stability.
Partition Co-efficient: To produce a pharmacological response, a drug molecule must first cross a biologic membrane of protein and lipid, which acts as a lipophilic barrier to many drugs. The ability of a drug molecule to penetrate this barrrier is based in part on its preference for lipids [lipopholic] versus its preference for an aqueous phase [hydrophilic]. A drug’s partition coefficient is a measure of its distribution in a lipophilic-hydrophilic phase system and indicates its ability to penetrate biologic multiphase systems.
Partition co-efficient =(Solubility of Drug in Organic Solvent )/(Solubility of Drug in Aqueous Solvent)
Physical Form: The crystal or amorphous forms and the particle size of a powdered drug can affect the dissolution rate, thus the rate and extent of absorption, for a number of drug. For example, by reducing particle size and increasing powder fineness and therefore the surface area of a poorly soluble drug, its dissolution rate in the gut is enhanced and its biologic absorption increased.
Stability: The chemical and physical stability of a drug substance alone, and when combined with formulation components, its critical to preparing a successful pharmaceutical product.
ANALYTICAL PREFORMULATION
ATTRIBUTE TEST
Identity Nuclear Magnetic Response [NMR]
 Infra Red Spectroscopy [IRS]
 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy [UVS]
 Thin Layer Chromatography [TLC]
 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
 Optical Rotation, where applicable  
Purity Moisture (Water & Solvent)
 Inorganic Elements
 Heavy Metal
 Organic Impurities
 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
Assay Titration
 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy [UVS]
 High Performance Liquid Chromatography [HPLC]
Quality Appearance
 Odor
 Solution Color
 pH of Slurry (Saturated Solution)
 Melting Point
 
Biopharmaceutics
Biopharmaceutics is the science that examines the interrelationship of the physicochemical properties of the drug, the dosage form in which the drug is given, and the route of administration on the rate and extent of systemic drug absorption.
Factors that influence Biopharmaceutics:
 The stability of the drug within the drug product
 The release of the drug from the drug product
 The rate of release or dissolution of the drug at the absorption site
 The systemic absorption of the drug 
Bioavailability: Bioavailability is defined as the rate and extent of the drug absorption. The bioavailability exhibited by a drug is thus very important in determining whether a therapeutically effective concentration will be achieved at the site or sites of action.
For intravenous administration of a drug,
 Directly administered into the blood
 The entire drug reaches the systemic circulation
IV administrated drug is 100% bioavailable.
For orally administered of a drug,
 Completely released from the dosage form 
 Fully dissolved in the GIT fluids
 Stable in solution in the GIT fluids
 Pass through the GIT barrier into the mesenteric circulation without being metabolized
 Pass through the liver into the systemic circulation unchanged
Oral administrated drug is 100% bioavailable.
Area – Under – Curve [AUC]: The total amount of active drug that reaches to systemic circulation.
Minimum Effective Conc. [MEC]: The minimal blood level at which a systemic drug exerts the desired effect.
Maximum Therapeutic Conc. [MTC] / Maximum Safe Concentration: The maximum blood level at which a systemic drug exerts the desired effect.
Drug Binding Proteins: 
 Human Serum Albumin (HAS)
 α1 – acidic Glycoprotein (AGP)
 Globulin
 Lipoprotein
PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORM

Tablet
A tablet is a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed or compacted into a solid. The excipients include binders, glidants (flow aids) and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrates to ensure that the tablet breaks up in the digestive tract; sweeteners or flavors to mask the taste of bad-tasting active ingredients; and pigments to make uncoated tablets visually attractive. A coating may be applied to hide the taste of the tablet's components, to make the tablet smoother and easier to swallow, and to make it more resistant to the environment, extending its shelf life.
The compressed tablet is the most popular dosage form in use today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid dosage forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet can be formulated to deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site; it is usually taken orally, but can be administered sublingually, rectally or intra vaginally.
 Tablet = Active Ingredients (90-95%) + Excipients
Type of Tablets: Compressed Tablets, Multiply Compressed Tablets, Sugar Coated Tablets, Film Coated Tablets, Gelatin Coated Tablets, Enteric Coated Tablets, Buccal & Sublingual Tablets, Chewable Tablets, Effervescent Tablets, Molded Tablets, Tablet Triturates, Hypodermic Tablets, Dispensing Tablets, Immediate Release Tablets, Instantly Disintegrating or Dissolving Tablets, Lyophilized Foam, Extended Release Tablets, Vaginal Tablets 
Tablet Formulation:
 Compatibility of drug substance with excipients
 Flow ability
 Compactibility
 Lubricity
 Appearance
 Disintegration
 Dissolution
Manufacturing of Tablets:
Granulation: Granulation is the process of collecting particles together by creating bonds between them. It’s the process of particle size enlargement. 
Types of Granulation:
Direct Compression: This method is used when a group of ingredients can be blended and placed in a tablet press to make a tablet without any of the ingredients having to be changed.
Wet Granulation:
 Step 1: Weighing and Blending - the active ingredient, filler, disintegration agents, are weighed and mixed.
 Step 2: The wet granulate is prepared by adding the liquid binder/adhesive.
 Step 3: Screening the damp mass into pellets or granules
 Step 4: Drying the granulation
 Step 5: Dry screening
 Step 6: Lubrication
 Step 7: Liquid binder, but sometimes many actives are not compatible with water.
Dry Granulation: This process is used when the product needed to be granulated may be sensitive to moisture and heat.
Fluidized Bed Granulation: It is a multiple step process performed in the same vessel to pre-heat, granulate and dry the powders. It requires only one piece of machinery that mixes all the powders and granules on a bed of air.
Tablet Disintegration Process: 
 Tablet → Drug dissolution → Drug in solution in GI fluid → Absorption → Drug in Blood
Tablet Processing Problems: 
 Capping (complete separation)
 Lamination (separate into 2 or 3 layers)
 Picking or Striking (break when they are in sealed or turned up)
 Mottling (uneven color)
 Weight Variation
 Granule Size and Size Distribution Before Compression
 Poor Flow of Granules
 Poor Mixing
 Hardness Variation
 Double Impression
 Punch Variation
Allowed weight variations for TABLET
Average Tablet weight in mg Maximum % of difference allowed
130 / Less 10
130 – 324 7.5
More than 324 5

Friability: Friability is an important factor in tablet formulation to ensure that the tablet can stay intact and withhold its form from any outside force of pressure.
 % friability = 100 × ((W0-Wf))/W0
Where Wo= original weight of the tablets, and Wf= final weight of the tablets after the collection is put through the friabilator. 
 Friability below 0.8% is usually considered satisfactory
Tablet Coating: Although sugar-coating was popular in the past, Modern tablet coatings are polymer and polysaccharide based, with plasticizers and pigments included. 
Principles of Tablet Coating:
 Coatings are necessary for tablets that have an unpleasant taste, and a smoother finish makes large tablets easier to swallow. 
 Tablet coatings are also useful to extend the shelf-life of components that are sensitive to moisture or oxidation.
Tablet Coating Defects:
 Film Coating Defects: Wrinkling or Blistering, Picking, Pitting, Blooming, Mottling, Orange Peel, Bridging, Cracking, Splitting, Peeling
 Sugar Coating Defects: Chipping, Cracking, Non-drying, Twinning, Uneven color, Blooming, Sweating, and Marbling
Tablet Excipients Properties:
 They should be inert and physically and chemically compatible with the active substance and the other excipients being used in the formulation
 They should be physiologically inert
 They should not have an unacceptable microbiological burden
 They should not have a deleterious effect on the bioavailability
 They should have regulatory acceptability in all countries where the product is to be marked
Tablet ADVANTAGES:
 They are a unit dosage forms, offer the greatest dosage precision and the least content variability
 Their cost is lowest of all oral dosage forms
 They are the lightest and most compact
 In general, the easiest and cheapest to package and ship
 Product identification is the simplest and cheapest when employing embossed or monogrammed punch face
 Provide the greatest case of swallowing, with the least tendency for hang up above the stomach
 Lend themselves to contain special release profile example: enteric or delayed release products
 Better suited to large scale production
 The best combined property of chemical, mechanical and microbiologic stability 
Tablet DISADVANTAGES:
 Some drugs resist compression in to dense compacts
 Drugs with poor wetting, slow dissolution properties, absorption in the GIT. May difficult to formulate as a tablet
 Bitter testing drugs, drugs with an objectionable odor or drugs that are sensitive to oxygen or atmospheric moisture may require coating
Sustained Release Dosage Form
Another form of coating is enteric coated tablets which are coated with a material which will dissolve in the intestine but remain intact in the stomach. Polymeric acid compounds have been used for this purpose with some success. “Enclosing drugs in diffusion-controlled membranes” is an important basic principle of controlled time release.

Types of products: 
 Erosion tablets 
 Waxy matrix 
 Matrix erodes or drug leaches from matrix 
 Coated pellets 
 Different pellets (colors) have different release properties 
 Coated ion exchange 
 Osmotic pump 
 Insoluble coat with small hole. Osmotic pressure pushes the drug out at a controlled rate.
Benefits: 
 For short half-life drugs, sustained release can mean less frequent dosing and thus better compliance. 
 Reduce variations in plasma or blood levels for more consistent result.
Problems: 
 A sustained release product may contain a larger dose, i.e. the dose for two or three ‘normal’ dosing intervals. A failure of the controlled release mechanism may result in release of a large toxic dose. 
 More expensive technology
Results: 
 Reduced side effects
Capsule
One or more medicinal & inert substances are enclosed within a small shell or container which is prepared by gelatin. Hard Gelatin and Soft Gelatin capsules are made from gelatin and from plant-based gelling substances and modified forms of starch and cellulose.  
Gelatin: Gelatin is a heterogeneous product obtained by the partial hydrolysis of collagen derived from the skin, white connective tissue, hide portion, frozen pork and bones of animals.
Properties of Gelatin:
 Gelatin occurs in sheets, flakes, shreds, or as a coarse or fine powder
 It is faintly yellow or amber and process slight characteristic odor and taste
 When dry it is stable in air but when moist, it is subject to bacterial decomposition
 It is soluble in hot water
 It is insoluble in cold water, most immiscible solution, volatile and fixed oils
Capsules Sizes & Body Fill Volume: 
Capsule Size Body Volume (mL)
000 1.40
00 0.95
0 0.68
1 0.50
2 0.37
3 0.30
4 0.21
5 0.13

Types of Capsule:
Hard Gelatin Capsule: Hard-shelled capsules are normally used for dry, powdered ingredients. The shell of hard gelatin capsules basically consists of gelatin, plasticizers and water. Modern day shells may, in addition, consist of preservatives, colors, opacifying agents, flavors, sugars, acids, enteric materials etc. 
Parts of Hard Gelatin Capsule → (1) Body (2) Cap
Properties of Hard Gelatin Capsule:
 Usually cylindrical in shape.
 Their boundary wall is firm and rigid, not flexible.
 Only solid medicaments are filled into the shell.
 The Hard Gelatin Capsule shell usually contains plasticizers, water, preservatives, color, flavor, and sugar.
  Hard gelatin capsule contains less moisture [13 – 16%].
 It requires two steps of formulation. At first, the shell formation and then the filling process completed.
 Volatile oil substance is not suitable for filling.
 Hard gelatin capsules usually contain 30 – 600 mg.
 High bloom gelatins are used.
 Ration of dry gelatin and dry glycerin is 1:0.4.
Types of materials for filling into hard gelatin capsule
Dry solid Semisolids Liquids
Powder, Pellets, Granules, Tablets Thermo softening mixtures, Thixotropic mixtures, Pastes Non-aqueous liquids  

Preparations of Filled Hard Gelatin Capsule:
 Developed and preparing the formulation and selecting the size capsule
 Filling the capsule shells
 Capsule sealing [optional]
 Cleaning and polishing the filled capsules
Soft Gelatin Capsule: Soft-shelled capsules primarily used for oils and for active ingredients that are dissolved or suspended in oil. Consist of liquid or semisolid matrix inside one piece of outer gelatin shell.
Properties of Soft Gelatin Capsule:
 Shape: Spherical, Oval, Cylindrical, Tube
 Filled medicaments: May be solid, semi-solid and liquid
 Boundary wall: Soft and Flexible
 Moisture content in gelatin: 0.7 – 1.3 parts of water to each parts of dry gelatin
 The Gelatin Wall: Usually contain water, plasticizers and preservatives
 Capsule Shell: The soft gel capsule shell may be transparent or opaque and cam be colored and flavored if desired
 Coating: The soft gel can be coated with enteric resistant or delayed release material
 Formulation process: One continuous process, e.g. Fillings formulation in same time
 Volatile drug substance: Suitable for filling – 
Capacity – may contain 0.1 – 30 mL
Structure – Only the body
 Gelatin Strength: Low bloom gelatin used Dry glycerin : Dry gelatin = 0.8 : 1  
Classification:
 Orally administered soft gels
 Chewable soft gels
 Suck able soft gels
 Twist off soft gels
 Melt able soft gels
Soft Capsule Shell Components:
 Gelatin
 Coloring agent
 Opacifier
 Plasticizer
 Preservatives
Core materials:
 Vehicles
 Drug
 Suspending agent
 Surfactant
 Preservative or antioxidant
Soft Gelatin Capsule ADVANTAGES:
 Improved drug absorption
 Increased bioavailability
 Patient compliance and consumer preference
 Safety potent and Cytotoxic drugs
 Oils and Low melting point drugs
 Dose uniformity for low dose drugs
 Product stability
Quality Control Tests for Capsules:
 Disintegration test
 Weight test
 Contents uniformity test
 Certain visual test
Micro-encapsulation: Micro-encapsulation is a process by which small particles of solids, liquids or even gases may be encapsulated into microscopic size, ranging from several tenths of 1µ - 5000µ in size, through the formation of thin coating of coating materials around the substance being encapsulated.
Purposes:
 Controlling the release characteristics or availability of coated materials
 Providing environmental protection
 Altering colloidal and surface properties
 Converting liquids to solid
Types of Methods:
 Air suspension
 Coacervation phase separation
 Multiorifice centrifugal
 Pan coating
 Solvent evaporation
 Spray drying and Congealing
Pharmaceutical Application:
 For masking the test of bitter drugs
 To facilitate selective sorption
 To prepare sustained action dosage forms
 For separating the incompatible ingredients
 To prevent volatilization of volatile substances
 To protect drugs from moisture and oxidation
 In stabilization by conversion of dosage form
Biological Application:
 To reduce gastric irritation
 Sustained normalization of diabetic condition
 In perm selectivity of enzyme substrate and reaction products 
Syrup (Liquid)
The syrup employed as a base for medicinal purposes consists of a concentrated or saturated solution of refined sugar in distilled water. The "simple syrup" of the British Pharmacopoeia is prepared by adding 1 kg of refined sugar to 500 mL of boiling distilled water, heating until it is dissolved and subsequently adding boiling distilled water until the weight of the whole is 1.5 kg. 
 The specific gravity of the syrup should be 1.33
Medicated syrups are prepared by adding medicaments to, or dissolving them in, the simple syrup.
Pharmaceutical Suspension
Pharmaceutical suspensions are solid dispersion of insoluble or sparingly-soluble drugs, in aqueous or oily vehicles. They are intended for oral administration, topical application or parenteral administration of drugs. 
Aerosol suspension of finely divided, or micronized drugs, is also another class of pharmaceutical preparations intended for inhalation.  
The insoluble basic drug, or insoluble salt or compound of a drug, is frequently used rather than using the soluble salt, to retard absorption of the drug. This is used for the preparation of prolonged released dosage forms to avoid frequent administration of the drug. 
Some eye drops or ear drops are also prepared in suspension form for drugs which are sparingly soluble, or using the insoluble form to prolong the time of action of the drug, such as corticosteroid preparations.
Emulsions
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more immiscible liquids. One liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase).
Types of Phase in Emulsion:
 Disperse/Liquid Phase: Presents as fine droplets.
 Continuous Phase: Where droplets are suspended.
Micro-emulsions: Micro-emulsions are homogenous, transparent systems that are thermodynamically stable. They form spontaneously when the components are mixed in the appropriate ratios. They can be dispersions of oil in water or water in oil, but the droplets size is very much smaller, 5-140 nm than in coarse emulsions.  
Types of Emulsion:
 o/w (oil in water)
 w/o (water in oil)
 w/o/w (water in oil in water)
Stability of Emulsion:
 Cracking or Breaking
 The addition of a chemical that is incompatible with the emulsifying agent
 Bacterial growth
 Temperature change
 Freezing
 Flocculation and Coalescence
 Phase inversion
Emulsifying Agents or Emulsifier: An emulsifier is a substance which stabilizes an emulsion, frequently a surfactant.
Types of Emulsifying Agents: 
 Surface active agent
 Finely divided solids
 Hydrophilic colloids
Semisolids
Pharmaceutical semisolid preparations are topical products intended for application on the skin or accessible mucous membranes to provide localized and sometimes systemic effects at the site of application. In general, semisolid dosage forms are complex formulations having complex structural elements. They are often composed of two phases (oil and water), one of which is a continuous (external) phase and the other a dispersed (internal) phase. The active ingredient is often dissolved in one or both phases, thus creating a three-phase system. 
The physical properties of the dosage form depend on various factors, including the size of the dispersed particles, the interfacial tension between the phases, the partition coefficient of the active ingredient between the phases, and the product rheology. 
The design of a semisolid preparation is based on its ability to adhere to the surface of application for a reasonable duration before they are washed or worn off. 
Classification of Semisolid: 
 Ointments
 Creams
 Pastes
 Gels
Ointments: Ointments are semisolid preparations intended for external application to the skin or mucous membranes. Ointments may be medicated or not. Soft semisolid preparation often anhydrous & containing medicaments dissolved suspended or emulsified in the base. E.g. Mineral oil, Petrolatum, and Polyethylene Glycol.
Types of Ointment Bases: They are 4 types:
 Oleaginous bases 
 Absorption bases 
 Water-removable bases 
 Water-soluble bases  
Creams: Creams are semisolid emulsion systems with an opaque appearance. Their consistency and rheologic properties are based on whether the emulsion is o/w or w/o and on the nature of the solid in the internal phase. Semisolid emulsions consisting lipophilic phase & an aqueous phase.
Cold Cream: Cold cream is a w/o emulsion. It deposits a thin oily layer on the skin which inhibits water evaporation. Used in winter season. 
Vanishing Cream: Vanishing cream is an o/w emulsion. It is well polished preparation with pearl like appearance. It is softer than Cold cream and disappears or vanishes immediately after application. It is rapidly penetrates into the skin and makes it soft. Used in summer season. 
Pastes: Pastes are basically ointments into which a high percentage of insoluble solids have been added. Powders such as zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, starch, and kaolin are incorporated in high concentrations into a preferably lipophilic greasy vehicle to form a paste-like mass.
Gels: Gels are semisolid systems in which a liquid phase is constrained within a three-dimensional polymeric matrix in which a high degree of physical cross-linking has been introduced.
Suppositories
Solid, uniformly mediated, torpedo shaped formulations which melt or disintegrate & dissolved after insertion so that the medication is released into the rectum. They are used to deliver both Systemically-acting and Locally-acting medications.
Types of Suppositories:
 Vaginal Suppositories: Commonly used to treat gynecological ailments, including vaginal infections such as candidacies. 
 Rectal Suppositories: Commonly used for laxative purposes with chemicals such as glycerin or bisacodyl, treatment of hemorrhoids by delivering a moisturizer or vasoconstrictor, delivery of many other systemically-acting medications such as promethazine or aspirin, general medical administration purposes: the substance crosses the rectal mucosa into the bloodstream; examples include paracetamol (acetaminophen), diclofenac, opiates, and eucalyptol suppositories.
Evaluation of Suppositories:
 Uniformity of weight test
 Melting range test
 Breaking test
 Disintegration or Dissolution test
Types of Suppository Bases:
 Oily bases
 Water soluble bases
 Emulsifying bases
Properties of Suppository Bases:
 It should be good in appearance
 It should melt or disintegrate, i.e. mix and dissolve in the rectal fluids at body temperature
 It should retain its shape when being handled
 It should be stable on storage, i.e. it should not undergo any physical or chemical change on storage
 It should be completely nontoxic and nonirritant to the mucous membrane of the body cavity
 It should release the incorporate medicaments
 It should be compatible with large number of drugs
 It should easily attain the shape of the mold and should not stick to the sides of the mould
Pharmaceutical Aerosols
Pharmaceutical Aerosols include pressurized Metered Dose Inhalers (MDIs), Dry Powder Inhalers (DPIs), Nebulizers, Sublinguals, Skin Sprays (coolants, anesthetics, etc.) and Dental Sprays.
Inhaler: An inhaler or puffer is a medical device used for delivering medication into the body via the lungs. It is mainly used in the treatment of Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.
Metered Dose Inhaler: MDI is a device that helps deliver a specific amount of medication to the lungs, usually by supplying a short burst of aerosolized medicine that is inhaled by the patient. It is commonly used to treat Asthma, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, and other Respiratory Diseases.
Basic MDI formulation components:
 Drug active
 Surfactant
 Co-solvent
 Propellant
MDI consists of 2 major components: the Canister and an Actuator.
Dry Powder Inhalers: DPIs are devices that deliver medications to the lungs to treat respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, COPD, diabetes mellitus, and others). The medication is commonly held either in a capsule for manual loading or a proprietary form from inside the inhaler. Once loaded or actuated, the operator puts the mouthpiece of the inhaler into their mouth and takes a deep inhalation, holding their breath for 5-10 seconds.
Nebulizer: A device used to administer medication to people in the form of a mist inhaled into the lungs. It is commonly used in treating cystic fibrosis, asthma, and other respiratory diseases.
Sterilization (Microbiology)
Sterilization refers to any process that effectively kills or eliminates transmissible agents (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, spore forms, etc.) from surface, equipment, article of food or medication, or biological culture medium.
The term sterilization, as applied to pharmaceutical preparations, means destructive of all living organisms and their spores or their complete removal from the preparation. Five general methods are used to sterilize pharmaceutical products:
 Steam Sterilization: Steam sterilization is conducted in an autoclave and employs steam under pressure. It is usually the method of choice if the product can withstand. 
 10 lb pressure [115.50C] for 30 minutes
 15 lb pressure [1210C] for 20 minutes
 20 lb pressure [126.50C] for 15 minutes
 Dry Heat Sterilization: Dry heat sterilization is usually carried out in ovens designed for this purpose. The ovens may be heated either by gas or electricity and are generally thermostatically controlled. Because dry heat is less effective in killing microorganisms than is moist heat, higher temperatures and longer periods of exposure are required. Most pharmaceutical products are adversely affected by heat and cannot be heated safely to the temperature required for dry heat sterilization [about 1500 – 1600C]
 Filtration Sterilization: This process depends on the physical removal of microorganisms by adsorption on the filter medium or by a sieving mechanism, is used for heat sensitive solutions.
 Gas Sterilization: Some heat sensitive and moisture sensitive materials can be sterilized much better by exposure to ethylene oxide or propylene oxide gas than by other means.
 Ionization Radiation Sterilization: Techniques are available for sterilization of some types of pharmaceuticals by gamma rays and by cathode rays, but application of such techniques is limited because of the highly specialized equipment required and the effects of irradiation on product and their containers.
Sterile Products
Intravenous Therapy: IV therapy is the giving of liquid substances directly into a vein. It can be intermittent or continuous; continuous administration is called an intravenous drip. The word “intravenous” simply means “within a vein”, but is most commonly used to refer to IV therapy. Therapies administered intravenously are often called Specialty Pharmaceuticals.
Compared with other routes of administration, the intravenous route is one of the fastest ways to deliver fluids and medications throughout the body.
Injection: An injection is an infusion method of putting liquid into the body, usually with a hollow needle and a syringe which is pierced through the skin to a sufficient depth for the material to be forced into the body. 
An injection follows a parenteral route of administration. There are several methods of injection or infusion:
 Intradermal infusion
 Subcutaneous injection
 Intramuscular injection
 Intravenous injection
 Intraosseous injection
 Intraperitoneal injection
Intravenous infusion: An intravenous infusion is a liquid administered directly into the bloodstream via a vein.
Subcutaneous injection: A subcutaneous injection is administered as a bolus into the sub-cutis, the layer of skin directly below the dermis and epidermis.
Intramuscular injection: In an intramuscular injection, the medication is delivered directly into a muscle.
Depot injection: A depot injection is an injection, usually subcutaneous or intramuscular, of a pharmacological agent which releases its active compound in a consistent way over a long period of time.
Ampoule: An ampoule is a small glass sealed vial which is used to contain or preserve a fluid. Modern ampoules are most commonly used to contain pharmaceutical hypodermic solutions or high purity chemicals that must be protected from air.
Vial: A vial is a relatively small glass vessel or bottle, especially used to store medication as liquids, powders or in other forms like capsules. 
The glass can be colorless or colored, clear or amber. There are different types of closure systems, e.g. Screw vials, Lip vials, Crimp vials. A vial can have a tubular shape or a bottle-like shape with a neck. 
Saline: In medicine, saline is a general term referring to a sterile solution of NaCl in water. It is used for intravenous infusion, rinsing contact lenses, and nasal irrigation. Saline solutions are available in various formulations for different purposes. Salines are also used in cell biology, molecular biology and biochemistry experiments.
Catheter: In medicine a catheter is a tube that can be inserted into a body cavity, duct or vessel. Catheters thereby allow drainage, injection of fluids or access by surgical instruments. The process of inserting a catheter is catheterization. In most uses a catheter is a thin, flexible tube ("soft" catheter); in some uses, it is a larger, solid tube. ("Hard" catheter)
Eye Drops: Eye drops are saline-containing drops used as a vector to administer medication in the eye. Depending on the condition being treated, they may contain steroids (e.g. mydriatics, dexamethasone), antihistamines, and sympathomimetics, beta receptor blockers, parasympathomimetics (e.g. pilocarpine), parasympatholytics (e.g. tropicamide or atropine), prostaglandins, NSAIDs or topical anesthetics. 
Eye drops sometimes do not have medications in them and are only lubricating and tear-replacing solutions and they can also contain anti-redness and similar chemicals.
Elixir (Medical Powder)
A pharmaceutical preparation containing an active ingredient (such as morphine) that is dissolved in a solution that contains some percentage (usually 40-60%) of ethyl alcohol and is designed to be taken orally. Elixirs are often made from vodka or grappa.
Dietary Supplement
A dietary supplement, also known as Food supplement or Nutritional supplement is a preparation intended to supply nutrients, such as Vitamins, Minerals, Fatty Acids or Amino Acids, which are missing or are not consumed in sufficient quantity in a person's diet.
Otic Preparation
Otic preparations are sometimes referred to as ear or aural preparations. Solutions are most frequently used in ear, with suspensions and ointments also finding some application. Ear preparations are usually placed in the ear canal by drops in small amounts for removal of excessive cerumen [earwax] or for treatment of ear infections, inflammation, or pain.
Water & Solutions

Purified Water: Physically processed of water to remove impurities. Distilled water & Deionized water is the most common forms of purified water. Other processes of water purification are:
 Reverse osmosis
 Carbon filtration
 Micro-porous filtration
 Ultra filtration
 Ultraviolet oxidation
 Electro dialysis
Distilled Water: Water which is purified by distillation process & has electrical conductivity not more than 10 µS/cm & total dissolved solids of less than 10 mg/L. Distillation involves boiling the water and then condensing the steam into a clean container, leaving most solid contaminants behind. Distillation produces very pure water but does not guarantee the absence of bacteria in drinking water.
Deionized Water: Also known as de-mineralized water that has had its mineral ions removed, such as Cations from Na, Ca, Fe, Cu and Anions such as Cl & Br. Deionization is a physical process which uses specially manufactured ion exchange resins which bind to and filter out the mineral salts from water. Because the majority of water impurities are dissolved salts, deionization produces high purity water. Deionization does not significantly remove hydroxide or hydronium ions, uncharged organic molecules, viruses or bacteria.
Solution: A homogenous mixture of two or more substances on molecular levels. 
Standard Solution: A solution of known concentration. Standard solutions are normally used in titrations to determine the concentration of a substance in solution. To standardize a solution of acid we need to simply titrate it against a solution of alkali of known concentration. Standard solutions are also commonly used to determine the concentration of an analyte species. 
Saturated Solution: Solution that contain maximum amount of solutes at a particular temp, pressure & homogeneity which is destroyed due to further addition of solute.
Unsaturated Solution: [Just opposite definition of Saturated Solution]
Supersaturated Solution: A solution of a substance can dissolve no more of that substance and additional amounts of it will appear as a precipitate. This point of maximum concentration, the saturation point, depends on the temperature of the liquid as well as the chemical nature of the substances involved.
Concentration: (Mass or Volume of Solute/Mass or Volume of Solution) × 100%
Concentration of Solution = (mass of solute in gm)/(volume of solution in dm3)
Percent Yield: % yield = (actual yield)/(theoretical yield) × 100
Percent Purity: % purity = (mass of pure substance in sample)/(mass of sample) × 100 = (mass of salt obtained)/(initial mass of impure salt) × 100
Drug’s Solubility: A drug substance administered by any route must possess some aqueous solubility for systemic absorption and therapeutic response.
Dissolution Rate: The speed at which a drug substance dissolves in a medium is called dissolution rate. 
Factors affecting SOLUBILITY:
 Temperature
 pH
 Co-solvent
 Solubilization
 Complexation
 Particle size control
 Chemical modification of the drug
Aqueous Solution: Solution where water is used as solvent or vehicle.
Benefits of Aqueous Solution:
 Available
 Easy to store
 Tastelessness
 Non-toxic
 A wide range of materials dissolve in water
 Physiologically compatible to the body
 Lack of pharmacological activity
 Free from irritating qualities
 It can be handled and used with minimum care
Non-Aqueous Solution: Solution where water is not used as solvent or vehicle.
Co-Solvency: The process of increasing the solubility of poorly water soluble electrolytes & non-polar molecules by the addition of a water miscible solvent.
Complexation: The process of increase poorly soluble drug by the interaction with a soluble material to form a soluble intermolecular complex.
Molarity
(Molar Concentration) Molality Normality
Amount of Solute per unit Volume of Solution.
C= (n/V)= (N/NAV)= (C/NA)
Here, n= amount of the solute, N= number of molecules present in the volume =V, concentration =C, NA= Avogadro constant= 6.023×1023 mol−1. 
SI units: mol/m3. The Number of Moles of Solute per kg (1000gm) of Solvent. Atoms/ molecules randomly placed as in a liquid.


Amorphous: Atoms or molecules randomly placed as in a liquid.
Osmosis: Flow of solvent through a semi-permeable membrane. Floe will be dilute to Concentrate part.
 Solvent ::: Dilute Solution → Concentrate Solution
Organic Compound
Composition of Organic Compound
C : Always present
H : Nearly always present
O : Generally present
N, Halogens & S : Less commonly present
P : Rarely present

Purification of Organic Compounds:
 Crystallization
 Sublimation
 Distillation
 Fractional distillation
 Distillation under reduced pressure
 Steam distillation
 Extraction with solvents
 Chromatography
 
Acid, Base, pH, Titration, Indicator, Rate of Reactions
Acid & Base Concepts
CONCEPT ACID BASE
Arrhenius Concept H+ Producer OH- Producer
Bronsted – Lowary Concept H+ Donor H+ Acceptor
Lewis Concept e- Pair Acceptor e- Pair Donor
pH: pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the cologarithm of the activity of dissolved hydrogen ions (H+). Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured experimentally, so they are based on theoretical calculations. The pH scale is not an absolute scale; it is relative to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement.[1]
pH - Partition Theory:
The inter relationship among this following parameters is called pH-Partition Theory.
 Dissociation constant of the drug
 Lipid solubility of the drug
 pH of the absorption site
They are the 3 important parameters dictates the absorption characteristics of drug from solution.
Buffer Solution: Compounds or mixture of compounds if they present in a solution can resist change in pH upon addition of small quantities of acids/bases.
A buffer solution is composed of –
 Weak acid and its salt
 Weak base and its salt
Titration: Titration is a common laboratory method of Quantitative Chemical Analysis that is used to determine the Unknown Concentration of a Known Reactant. Because volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is also known as Volumetric Analysis. A reagent, called the Titrant or Titrator, of Known Concentration (a Standard Solution) and volume is used to react with a solution of the Analyte or Titrand, whose concentration is not known. Using a Calibrated Burette to add the titrant, it is possible to determine the exact amount that has been consumed when the endpoint is reached. The endpoint is the point at which the titration is complete, as determined by an indicator. In the classic strong acid-strong base titration, the endpoint of a titration is the point at which the pH of the reactant is just about equal to 7, and often when the solution permanently changes color due to an indicator. 
Indicator: An organic dye that signals the end-point by a visual change in color.
Rate of Reactions

Reaction Rates: Change in concentration of a reactant or product with time.
 Rate = ∆ C/ ∆ t = (C2 – C1) / (t2 – t1)
 The rate will be negative (-) for reactants
 The rate will be positive (+) for products 
Factors affecting the speed or rate of a biological reaction:
 Concentration 
 Temperature 
 Presence of macro/micro-nutrients 
 Physical state of reactants

 Zero Order Reaction: A Zero-order reaction has a rate which is independent of the concentration of the reactant(s). Increasing the concentration of the reacting species will not speed up the rate of the reaction. The rate law for a zero-order reaction is -
 r = - d[A] / - dt = k, where r is the reaction rate, and k is the reaction rate coefficient with units of concentration/time.
 t1/2 = [A]0 / 2k
 E.g.: 2NH3 (g) → 3H2 (g) + N2 (g)

 First Order Reaction: A first-order reaction depends on the concentration of only one reactant (a unimolecular reaction). Other reactants can be present, but each will be zero-order. The rate law for an elementary reaction that is first order with respect to a reactant A is -

 r = - d[A] / - dt = k[A], where k is the first order rate constant, which has units of 1/time.
 t1/2 = ln (2) / k
 E.g.: H2O2 (l) → H2O (l) + 1/2O2 (g)

 Second Order Reaction: A second-order reaction depends on the concentrations of one second-order reactant, or two first-order reactants. For a second order reaction, its reaction rate is –
 r = k[A]2 or r = k[A][B]
 t1/2 = 1 / k[A]0
 E.g.: 2NO2 (g) → 2NO (g) + O2 (g)

Pharmaceutical Formulation Technology
HPLC: High-performance liquid chromatography (or High pressure liquid chromatography, HPLC) is a form of column chromatography used frequently in biochemistry and analytical chemistry to separate, identify, and quantify compounds. HPLC utilizes a column that holds chromatographic packing material (stationary phase), a pump that moves the mobile phase(s) through the column, and a detector that shows the retention times of the molecules. Retention time varies depending on the interactions between the stationary phase, the molecules being analyzed, and the solvent(s) used.
Room Temperature (Ambient temp): Indicated by general human comfort, with the common range of 10°C (50°F) to 28°C (82.4 °F). For scientific calculations, room temperature is taken to be 20 to 23.5°C or 293 to 296K.
Thermal Conductivity (K): The property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat.

Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance and Manufacturing

Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)
Current Good Manufacturing Practice [cGMP] regulations are established by the Food and Drug Administration [FDA] to ensure that minimum standards are met for drug product quality in the United States. Good Manufacturing Practice or GMP (also referred to as 'cGMP' or 'current Good Manufacturing Practice') is a term that is recognized worldwide for the control and management of manufacturing and quality control testing of foods, pharmaceutical products, and medical devices.

Summary of GMP principles:
The international Society of Pharmaceutical Engineers (ISPE) has succinctly summarized the under lying principles of GMP with a set of ten rules:

 Compile detailed written procedures
 Follow these procedures
 Document (record) the work
 Validate the systems and processes
 Design and build proper facilities and equipment
 Maintain the facilities and equipment
 Must be competent
 Maintain cleanliness
 Control of quality
 Audit regularly for compliance

Tropical Outline of cGMP Regulations:

 General Provisions
 Scope
 Definitions
 Organization and Personnel
 Responsibilities of quality control unit
 Personnel qualifications
 Personnel responsibilities
 Consultants
 Buildings and Facilities
 Design and Construction Features
 Lighting
 Ventilation, Air filtration, Air heating and Cooling
 Plumbing
 Sewage and Refuse
 Washing and Toilet facilities
 Sanitation
 Maintenance 
 Equipment
 Equipment design, size, and location
 Equipment construction
 Equipment cleaning and maintenance
 Automatic, mechanical, and electronic equipment
 Filters
 Control of Components and Drug Product Containers and Closures
 General requirements
 Receipt and storage of untested components, drug product containers, and closures
 Testing and approved or rejection of components, drug product containers, and closures
 Use of approved components, drug product containers, and closures
 Retesting of approved components, drug product containers, and closures
 Drug product containers and closures
 Production and Process Controls
 Written procedures; derivations
 Charge-in of components
 Calculation of yield
 Equipment identification
 Sampling and testing of in-process materials and drug products
 Time limitations on production
 Control of microbiological contamination
 Reprocessing
 Packaging and Labeling Control
 Materials examination and usage criteria
 Labeling issuance
 Packaging and labeling operations
 Tamper-resistant packaging requirements for over-the-counter human drug products
 Drug product inspection
 Expiration dating
 Holding and Distribution
 Warehouse procedures
 Distribution procedures
 Laboratory Controls
 General requirements
 Testing and release for distribution
 Stability testing
 Special testing requirement
 Reverse samples
 Laboratory animals
 Penicillin contaminations
 Records and Reports
 General requirements
 Equipment cleaning and use log
 Component, drug product container, closure, and labeling records
 Master production and control records
 Batch production and control records
 Production record review
 Laboratory records
 Distribution records
 Complaint files
 Returned and Salvaged Drug Products
 Returned drug product
 Drug product salvaging

cGMP for Finished Pharmaceuticals:
The regulation in 21 CFR, Part 211 contains the minimum GMP requirement for the preparation of finished pharmaceutical product:

Active ingredient / Active pharmaceutical ingredient: Any component that is intended to furnish pharmacological activity or other direct effect in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of disease or to affect the structure or function of the body of man or other animal.

Batch: A specific quantity of a drug of uniform specified quality produced according to a single manufacturing order during the same cycle of manufacture.

Batch wise control: The use of validated in-process sampling and testing methods in such a way that results prove the process has done what it purports to do for the specific batch concerned.

Certification: Documented testimony by qualified authorities that a system qualification, calibration, validation, or revalidation has been performed appropriately and that the results are acceptable.

Compliance: Determination through inspection of the extent to which a manufacturer of a drug product, including those that may not be present in the finished product.

Component: Any ingredient used in the manufacture of a drug product, including those that may not be present in the finished product.

Drug product: A finished form that contains an active drug and inactive ingredients. The term may also include a form that does not contain an active ingredient, such as placebo.

Inactive ingredient: Any component other than the active ingredients in a drug product.

Lot: A batch or any portion of a batch having uniform specified quality and a distinctive identifying lot number.

Lot number, control number, or batch number: Any distinctive combination of letters, numbers, or symbols from which the complete history of the manufacture, processing, packaging, holding, and distribution of a batch or lot of a drug product may be determined.

Master record: Record containing the formulations, specifications, manufacturing procedures, quality assurance requirements, and labeling of a finished product.

Quality assurance: Provision to all concerned the evidence needed to establish confidence that the activities relating to quality are being performed adequately.

Quality audit: A documented activity performed in accordance with established procedures on a planned and periodic basis to verify compliance with the procedures to ensure quality.

Quality control: The regulatory process, through which industry measures actual quantity performance, compares it with standards and acts on the difference.

Quality control unit: An organizational element designed by a firm to be responsible for the duties relating to quality control.

Quarantine: An area that is marked, designed, or set aside for the holding of acceptance testing and qualification for use.

Representative sample: A sample that accurately portrays the whole.
Reprocessing: The activity where by the finished product or any of its components is recycled through all or part of the manufacturing process.

Strength: The concentration of the drug substance per unit dose or volume.

Verified: Signed by a second individual or recorded by automated equipment.

Validation: Documented evidence that a system [e.g. equipment, software, controls] does what it purports to do.

Process validation: Documented evidence that a process [e.g. sterilization] does what it purports to do.

Validation protocol: A prospective experimental plan to produce documented evidence that the system has been validated.

 A P P E N D I X [DEFINATIONS] 

Acceptance Criteria: The product specification and acceptance or rejection criteria, such as acceptable quality level and unacceptable quality level, with an associated sampling plan, that are necessary for making a decision to accept or reject a lot or batch.

Action Limit: The established criteria, requiring immediate follow-up and corrective action if exceeded.

Action Yield: The quality that is actually produced at any appropriate phase of manufacturing, processing or packaging of particular drug product.

Alert Limit: The established criteria, giving early warning of potential drift from normal conditions which are not necessarily grounds for definitive corrective action but which require follow-up investigation.

Aseptic Processing Area: A controlled environment consisting of several zones, in which the air supply, equipments and personnel are regulated to control microbial and particulate contamination to acceptance levels.

Aseptic Area: A room or suite of rooms or special area, designed, constructed, serviced and used with the intension of preventing microbial contamination of the product.

Aseptic Filling: The part of aseptic processing whereby the product is sterilized separately then filled and packaged using sterilized containers and closures in critical processing zones.

Authorized Person: Person who is responsible for the release batches of finished product for sale. The batch documentation of a batch of the finished product must be signed by an authorized person from the production department and the batch test results by an authorized person from the QC department for batch release.

Batch Records: All documents associated with the manufacture of a batch of bulk product or finished product.

Bio-Burden: The total number of viable microorganism on or in health care product prior to sterilization.

Bulk Product: Any product that has completed all processing stages up to, but not including final packaging.

Calibration: The rest of operations that established, under specific condition, the relationship between values indicated by an instrument or system for measuring, recording, and controlling, or the values represented by a material measure, and the corresponding known values of a reference standard.

Change Control: A formal system by which qualified representatives of appropriate disciplines review proposed or actual changes that might affect the validated status of facilities, systems, equipment or process.

Changing Room: A room or suite of rooms designed for the changing of clothes and from which a clean or aseptic area is entered.

Clean Area: An area with defined environmental control of particulate and microbial contamination constructed and used in such a way as to reduce the introduction, generation, and retention of contaminants within the area.

Cleaning Validation: Documented evidence that has an approved cleaning procedure will provide equipment or area which is suitable for processing medicinal products.

Chemical Disinfectant: A chemical or chemical solution capable of destroying microorganism through dehydration, alkylation, protein denaturation, oxidation, and wall permeability.

Critical Process: A process that may cause variation in the quantity of a pharmaceutical product.

Critical Area: An area with defined environment control of particulate and microbial contamination, construction and used in such a way as to reduce the introduction, generation and retention of contaminants within the area.

Critical Surfaces: Surfaces which come into contact with sterilized product or containers that may lead to contamination of product contact surfaces, if not appropriately controlled.

Cross Contamination: Contamination of a starting material, intermediate product or finished product with another starting material or product during production.

De-Contamination: The process of removing organism and rendering the object safe for handling.

Disinfection: A process that kills or destroys most disease producing microorganisms but rarely kills all spores.

D-Value: Sterilization exposure under a defined set of conditions that result in one logarithmic [to the base 10] or 90% reduction in the population of particular microorganisms.

Finished Product: A product that has undergone all stages of production, including packaging in its final container and labeling.

In Process Control: Checks performed during production in order to monitor and necessary to adjust the process to ensure that the product conforms to its specifications. The control of environment or equipment may also be regarded as a part of in process control.

Integrity Test: Test to determine the functional performance of a filter system.

Intermediate Product: Partly processed material that must undergo further manufacturing steps before it becomes a bulk product.  

Laminar Air Flow: Air flowing in a single direction, through a clean room or clean room area with uniform velocity along parallel flow lines. Laminar air flow system should provide a homogenous air speed of 0.30 m/s for vertical flow and 0.45 m/s for horizontal flows.

Large Volume Parenterals: A sterile single dose injectable product intended for administration through the skin or suitable parenteral route, with a normal fill volume of more than 100 ml.

Manufacture: All operations of purchase of materials and products, production, quality control, release, storage, shipment of finished products and related controls.

Manufacturing Process: The transformation of starting materials into finished products through a single operation or a sequence of operation involving installations, personnel, documentation and environment.

Marketing Authorization: A legal document issued by the competent drug regulatory authority that establishes the detailed composition and formulation of the product and the pharmacopoeias or other recognized specifications of its ingredients and of the final product itself, and includes details of packaging, labeling and self life.

Master formula: A document or set of documents specifying the starting materials with their quantities and the packaging materials, together with a description of the procedures and precautions required to produce a specified quantity of a finished product as well as the processing instructions, including the in process control.

Packing: All operations, including filling and labeling, that a bulk product has to undergo in order to becomes a finished product, sterile filling would not normally be regarded as part of packaging, the bulk product being the filled, but not the finally packaged, primary container.

Packaging Material: Any material, including printed material, employed in the packaging of a pharmaceutical product, excluding any other packaging used for transportation or shipment.
 Quality Drug + Quality Packaging → Quality Product
Aim of Packaging:
 Protection
 Identification
 Presentation
Components of Packaging:
 Container
 Closure
 Carton / Outer
 Box
Drug Packaging: Pharmaceutical blister films, high barrier thermoformable films (PCTFE, PVDC, COC or EVOH), Al-Al Pack, Al-PVDC Pack, Al-Strip Pack, Amber Paint Bottle.
Drug Packaging Hazards
Mechanical Hazards Shock or Impact damage
Compression
Vibration
Abrasion
Puncture or Piercing
Environmental Hazard Moisture
Temperature
Pressure
Light
Atmospheric Gases
Solid airborne contamination
Biological Hazard Microbiological
Other form of infestation
Pilferage & Adulteration risks
Chemical Hazard Chemical interactions

Product Regulations:
Stability Test of Drugs: 
 Freezing & Thawing
 Elevated temperature 
 Pressure
 Added chemical agents, various light sources
 Phase-Volume ratio variation
 Mechanical stress
Pharmaceutical Product: Any medicine intended for human use or veterinary product administration to food producing animals, presented in its finished dosage form or as a starting material for use in such a dosage form, which is subject to control by pharmaceutical legislation in both the exporting and importing state. 

Positive Pressure: Atmospheric pressure which is higher than the immediate surrounding area usually measures in inches of water or Pascal.

Procedures: Description of the operation to be carries out, the precautions to be taken and measures to be applied directly or indirectly related to the manufacture of the medicinal product.

Qualification of Equipments: The act of planning, caring out and recording the results of tests on equipment to demonstrate that it will perform as intended. Measuring instruments and systems must be calibrated.
Recovery: The introduction of all or part of previous batches of the required quality into another batch at a defined stage of manufacture.

Returned Product: Finished product sent back to manufacture.

Revalidation: A repeat of process validation to provide an assurance that changes in the process / equipment introduced in accordance with change control procedures do not adversely affect process characteristics and product quality.

Specification: A document describing in detail the requirements with which the product or material used or obtained during manufacture have to confirm. Specifications serve as a basis for quality evaluation.

Standard Operating Procedure: An authorized written procedure giving instruction for performing operations not necessarily specific to a given product or material but of a more general nature [e.g. equipment, operation, maintenance and cleaning, validation, cleaning of premises and environmental control, sampling and inspection etc.]. Certain SOPs may be used to supplement product specific MPCR and BPCRs.

Starting Material / Raw Material: The substances which are use in the process of pharmaceutical product production.

Sterility: The complete absence of microorganisms. 

Sterile Product: A product which is in a state free of viable microorganisms.

Strength: The concentration of the drug substance [e.g. weight/weight, weight/volume, or unit dose/volume basis] or the potency, that is, the therapeutic activity of a drug product as indicated by appropriate laboratory tests or by adequately developed and controlled clinical data.

Validation Protocol/Plan: A document describing the activities to be performed in a validation, including the acceptance criteria for the approval of a manufacturing process or apart thereof for routine use.

Yield:

 Theoretical Yield: The quantity that would be produced at any appropriate phase of manufacture, processing or packaging of a particular drug product, based upon the quantity of components to be used in the absence of any loss or error in actual production.
 Actual Yield: The quantity that is actually produced at any appropriate phase of manufacture, processing, or packaging of a particular drug product.
 Percentage of Theoretical Yield: The ratio of actual yield to the theoretical yield, stated as a percentage.

Z – Value: The temperature change required causing an one-log [change] decrease in the D – value, and it’s expressed in degrees Celsius.

GLOSSARY OF PHARMACEUTICAL TERMS

A
Active ingredient: The ingredient or ingredients of a pharmaceutical product responsible for its pharmacological activity [also medicament, drug substance, active pharmaceutical ingredient].
Aerosol: A dosage form that is packaged under pressure and contains therapeutically active ingredients that are released upon activation of an appropriate valve system.
Ampul: A final container that is all glass in which the open end, after filling with product, is sealed by heat [also ampoule, ampule]
Aseptic: Lacking disease-producing microorganisms; not the same as sterile.
Aseptic Processing: Manufacturing dosage forms without terminal sterilization. The dosage form is sterile-filtered, then aseptically filled into the final package and aseptically called.
B
Bead: A solid dosage form in the shape of a small sphere. The dosage form generally contains multiple beads [also pellet].
Bolus: A large, long tablet intended for administration to animals.
C
Capsule: A solid dosage form in which the drug is enclosed within a hard or soft soluble container or shell.
Capsule, Delayed Release: A coated capsule or more commonly encapsulated granules that may be coated to resist releasing the drug in the stomach because the drug will irritate gastric mucosa or gastric fluid will inactivate the drug.
Capsule, Extended Release: A capsule that is formulated in such a manner as to make the contained medication available over an extended period following ingestion.
Capsule, Soft Shell: A solid dosage form in which one or more active ingredients, normally in solution or suspension or in the form of a paste, is filled into a one-piece shell.
Collodion: A liquid preparation composed of pyroxylin dissolved in a solvent mixture of alcohol and ether and applied externally.
Concentrate for Dip: A preparation containing one or more active ingredients usually in the form of a paste or solution; it is used to prepare a diluted suspension, emulsion, or solution of the active ingredients for the prevention and treatment of ectoparasitic infestations of animals. 
Creams: A semisolid dosage form containing one or more drug substances dissolved or dispersed in a suitable base.
D
Drops, Oral: A solution, emulsion, or suspension that is administered in small volumes, such as drops, by means of a suitable device.
E
Effervescent: A dosage form containing ingredients that rapidly release CO2 when in contact with water.
Elixir: A clear, pleasantly flavored, sweetened hydroalcoholic liquid containing dissolved active ingredients intended for oral use.
Emulsion: A two-phase system in which one liquid is dispersed throughout another liquid in the form of small droplets.
Excipient: An inactive ingredient of a dosage form.
Extract: A concentrated preparation of vegetable or animal drug obtained by removal of the active constituents with suitable menstrual, by evaporation of all or nearly all of the solvent and by adjustment of the residual mass or powder to the prescribed standards.
F
Fluidextract: A liquid preparation of vegetable drug containing alcohol as a solvent, preservative, or both and so made that unless otherwise specified in an individual monograph, each milliliter contains the therapeutic constituents of 1 g of the standard drug.
Foam: An emulsion packaged in a pressurized aerosol container that has a fluffy, semisolid consistency when dispensed. 
G
Gel: A semisolid system consisting of either a suspension of small inorganic particles or large organic molecules interpenetrated by a liquid.
Granules: A preparation of dry aggregates of powder particles that may contain one or more active ingredients with or without other ingredients.
I
Implant: A small sterile solid mass consisting of a highly purified drug with or without excipients made by compression or molding and put in place by injection or incision.
Infusion, Intramammary: A suspension of a drug in a suitable oil vehicle; intended for veterinary use only.
Inhalation: A solution or suspension of one or more drug substances administered by the nasal or oral respiratory route for local or systemic effect.
Injection: A preparation intended for parenteral administration or for constituting or diluting a parenteral article prior to administration.
Irrigation: A sterile solution intended to bathe or flush open wounds or body cavities.
L
Liniment: An alcoholic or oleaginous solution or emulsion applied by rubbing on the skin for treating pain and stiffness of underlying musculature.
Lotion: A fluid suspension or emulsion applied to the surface of the skin.
Lozenge: A solid preparation that is intended to dissolve or disintegrate slowly in the mouth.
Lyophilization: Removal of water or other solvent from a frozen solution by sublimation caused by combination of temperature and pressure differentials.
M
Modified Release: A release pattern of the active ingredient from the dosage form that deliberately changed from that of the conventional form includes accelerated release, delayed release, extended release, pulsatile release, targeted release, and so on.  
Molded Tablet: A tablet that has been formed by dampening the ingredients and pressing them into a mold, then removing and drying the resulting solid mass.
Mouthwash: An aqueous solution used to rinse the oral cavity.
O
Ointment: A semisolid preparation intended for external application to the skin or mucous membrane.
Ophthalmic Preparation: Drug in dosage form intended to be applied to the eye.
Ophthalmic Ointment: A sterile ointment intended for application to the eye.
Ophthalmic Solution: A sterile solution, essentially free from foreign particles, suitably prepared and packaged for instillation into the eye. 
Ophthalmic Suspension: A sterile liquid preparation containing solid particles dispersed in a liquid vehicle intended for application to the eye.
Ophthalmic Strip: A sterile single-use container or sterile impregnated paper strip containing the drug to be applied to the eye.
Orally Disintegrating: A solid oral dosage form that disintegrates rapidly in the mouth to facilitate release of the active ingredient.
Otic Solution: A solution intended for instillation in the outer ear.
Otic Suspension: A liquid preparation containing micronized particles intended for instillation in the outer ear.
P
Paste: A semisolid dosage form that contains one or more drug substances intended for topical application. It generally contains a high concentration of solids and has a stiff consistency.
Pellet: see bead [Also a solid granule or regular shape prepared by compaction or by granulation]
Pill: A solid spherical dosage form, usually prepared by wet massing technique.
Plaster: A solid or semisolid mass supplied on a backing material and intended to provide prolonged contact with the skin.
Powder: An intimate mixture of dry, finely divided drug or chemicals that may be intended for internal [oral] or external [topical] use.
Premix: A mixture of two or more drug substances with a suitable vehicle.
Pulsatile Release: A release pattern of the active ingredient from the dosage form that is modified to release aliquots of the total drug at two or more time intervals.
R
Rinse: A solution used to cleanse by flushing.
S
Shampoo: A solution, emulsion, or suspension used to clean the hair and scalp.
Soap: The alkali salts of one or more fatty acid.
Solution: A liquid preparation that contains one or more dissolved [molecularly dispersed] chemical substances in a suitable solvent or mixture of miscible solvents; may be oral, topical, otic, and ophthalmic.
Spirit: An alcoholic or hydroalcoholic solution of volatile substances prepared usually by simple solution or by admixture of the ingredients.
Sterile: Completely lacking living [viable] microbial life.
Sterility: An acceptably high level of probability that a product processed in an aseptic system does not contain viable microorganisms.
Stick: A slender, cylindrical dosage form of rigid consistency.
Suppositories: A solid body adapted for introduction into the rectal, vaginal, or urethral orifice.
Suppository Tablet or Insert: A vaginal suppository prepared by compression of powdered materials into a suitable shape; can also be prepared by encapsulation in soft gelatin.
Suspension: A liquid preparation that consists of solid particles dispersed throughout a liquid phase in which the particles are not soluble; may be oral, topical, otic, ophthalmic.
Syrup: A solution containing a high concentration of sucrose or other sugars.
System: a dosage form developed to allow for uniform release or targeting of drugs to the body.
System, Transdermal: A self-contained, discrete dosage form that is designed to deliver drugs through the intact skin to the systemic circulation.
System, Ocular: A dosage form intended for placement in the lower conjunctival fornix, from which the drug diffuses through a membrane at a constant rate.
System, Intrauterine: A system that is intended for release of drug over a long period, such as a year.
T
Tablet: A solid dosage form containing medicinal substances with or without diluents.
Tablet, Chewable: A tablet formulated so that it may be chewed, producing a pleasant-tasting residue that is easily swallowed and does not leave a bitter or unpleasant aftertaste.
Tablet, Delayed Release: A tablet with a coating that is intended to postpone release of the medication until the tablet has passed through the stomach.
Tablet, Extended Release: A tablet that is formulated so as to make the contained medication available over an extended period following ingestion.
Targeted Release: Release of the active ingredient from a dosage form modified to preferentially deliver most of the drug to a specific region, organ, or tissue.
Terminal Sterilization: A process used to produce sterility in a final product contained in its final packaging system.
Tincture: An alcoholic or hydroalcoholic solution prepared for vegetable materials or from chemical substances.
Transdermal Delivery System, Electroporation: A transdermal delivery system enhanced by the application of short, high-voltage electric pulses to create aqueous pores in the lipid bilayer of skin and thereby facilitate drug diffusion.
Transdermal Delivery System, High Velocity Powder Particles: A transdermal delivery system using supersonic shock waves of helium gas to enhance drug diffusion through the skin.
Transdermal Delivery System, Iontophoresis: A transdermal delivery system enhanced by the use of applied electric current to facilitate drug diffusion through the skin.
Transdermal Delivery System, Phonophoresis: A transdermal delivery system enhanced by the application of low-frequency ultrasound to facilitate drug diffusion through the skin.
Transdermal Matrix Patch: A transdermal matrix system using a polymeric matrix containing drug intended for systemic delivery through the skin; generally the skin is the rate-controlling membrane for drug diffusion.
Transdermal Membrane Patch: A transdermal system containing a drug reservoir entrapped between backing and adhesive layers and a drug diffusion-controlling membrane; the reservoir is usually a semisolid dispersion or solution of the drug.
U
Urethral: A dosage form intended for insertion into the urethra to provide a local effect of the active ingredient.
V
Validation: Scientific study to prove that a process is doing what it is supposed to do and is under control.
W
Water, Aromatic: A clear, saturated aqueous solution of one or more volatile oils or other aromatic or volatile substances.

P H A R M A C O L O G Y

Pharmacology is the study of Drug Action. More specifically it is the study of the interactions that occur between a Living Organism and Exogenous Chemicals that alter normal biochemical function.
• Pharmacology = Drug Action = Living Organism + Exogenous Chemicals = Alter Normal Biochemical Function
Divisions of Pharmacology:
• Clinical pharmacology
• Neuro and Psychopharmacology
• Pharmacogenetics 
• Pharmacogenomics 
• Pharmacoepidemiology 
• Toxicology 
• Posology
• Pharmacognosy 
Branches of Clinical Pharmacology:
• Pharmacodynamics
• Pharmacokinetics
• Rational Prescribing
• Adverse Drug Effects
• Toxicology
• Drug interactions
• Drug development
Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy is an applied science that deals with the biologic, biochemical, and economic features of natural drugs and their constituents.
Preparation of drugs for the commercial market:
• Collection
• Harvesting
• Drying
• Garbling
• Packaging, Storage, and Preservation
Classification of drugs: In Pharmacognosy, drugs may be classified according to:
i. Their morphology
ii. The taxonomy of the plants and animals from which they are obtained
iii. Their therapeutic applications
iv. Their chemical constituents
Active Chemical Constituents for Drug:
i. Pharmaceutically Active Constituents: Pharmaceutically active constituents may be cause precipitation or other chemical changes in a medicinal preparation.
ii. Pharmacologically Active Constituents: Pharmacologically active constituents are responsible for the therapeutic activity of the drug. They may be either single chemical substances or mixtures of principles, the separation of which is neither practical nor advantageous. The single chemicals are exemplified by sugars, starches, plant acids, enzymes, glycosides, steroids, alkaloids, proteins, hormones, and vitamins. The mixtures include fixed oil, fats, waxes, volatile oils, resins, oleoresins, and balsams.

Pharmacokinetics & Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics (in Greek: “pharmacon” meaning “drug” and “kinetikos” meaning “putting in motion”) is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to the determination of the fate of substances administered externally to a living organism. In practice, this discipline is applied mainly to drug substances, though in principle it concerns itself with all manner of compounds ingested or otherwise delivered externally to an organism, such as nutrients, metabolites, hormones, toxins, etc.
 Pharmacokinetics explores what the body does to the drug.
ADME: Pharmacokinetics is divided into several areas -
1) Liberation is the process of release of drug from the formulation.
2) Absorption is the process of a substance entering the body.
3) Distribution is the dispersion or dissemination of substances throughout the fluids and tissues of the body.
4) Metabolism is the irreversible transformation of parent compounds into daughter metabolites.
5) Excretion is the elimination of the substances from the body. In rare cases, some drugs irreversibly accumulate in a tissue in the body.
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacodynamics is the study of the physiological effects of drugs on the body or on microorganisms or parasites within or on the body and the mechanisms of drug action and the relationship between drug concentration and effect. One dominant example is drug-receptor interactions as modeled by
L + R ↔ L-R
Where L = Ligand (Drug), R = Receptor (Attachment Site). 
 Pharmacodynamics explores what a drug does to the body.

Receptor, Agonist & Antagonist

Receptor: A receptor is a protein molecule, embedded in either the plasma membrane or cytoplasm of a cell, to which a mobile signaling molecule may attach.
Ligand: A molecule which binds to a receptor is called ligand. They may be a peptide (neurotransmitter), a hormone, a pharmaceutical drug, or a toxin. When such binding occurs, the receptor goes into a conformational change which ordinarily initiates a cellular response.
Binding and Activation: Ligand binding is an equilibrium process. Ligands bind to receptors and dissociate from them according to the law of mass action.
[Ligand] + [Receptor] = [Ligand-Receptor Complex]
Transmembrane Receptor: Transmembrane receptors are integral membrane proteins, which reside and operate typically within a cell's plasma membrane, but also in the membranes of some sub cellular compartments and organelles. They play a unique and important role in cellular communications and signal transduction.
T - Cell receptor: The T cell receptor is a molecule found on the surface of T - Lymphocytes (or T cells) that is, in general, responsible for recognizing antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules.
Immune Receptor: An immune receptor is a receptor, usually on a cell membrane, which binds to a substance and causes a response in the immune system.
G – Protein Coupled Receptors: G protein-coupled receptors, comprise a large protein family of transmembrane receptors that sense molecules outside the cell and activate inside signal transduction pathways and, ultimately, cellular responses. G protein-coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, plants, choanoflagellates, and animals. 
Agonist: Drug or Ligand Binds with Same Site as the Endogenous Ligand & produce Same Signal.
Antagonist: Drug binds with Same Site used by Endogenous Ligand & acts Competitively to Diminish or Block the Signal produce by Endogenous Ligand.
Receptor Antagonist: A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that does not provoke a biological response itself upon binding to a receptor, but blocks or dampens agonist-mediated responses. In pharmacology, antagonists have affinity but no efficacy for their cognate receptors, and binding will disrupt the interaction and inhibit the function of an agonist or inverse agonist at receptors. 
Cholinergic Agonists: Drugs that bind to and activate Cholinergic Receptors. A receptor is cholinergic if it uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter.
Cholinergic Antagonists: Drugs that bind to but do not activate Cholinergic Receptors, thereby blocking the actions of acetylcholine or cholinergic agonists.
Adrenergic Agonists: Drugs that bind to and activate Adrenergic Receptors.
Adrenergic Antagonists: Drugs that bind to but do not activate adrenergic receptors. Adrenergic antagonists block the actions of the endogenous adrenergic transmitter Epinephrine and Norepinephrine.
Integral Membrane Protein: An Integral Membrane Protein is a protein molecule that is permanently attached to the biological membrane. Such proteins can be separated from the biological membranes only using detergents, nonpolar solvents, or sometimes denaturing agents.
Peripheral membrane protein: Peripheral membrane proteins are proteins that adhere only temporarily to the biological membrane with which they are associated. These molecules attach to integral membrane proteins, or penetrate the peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. In contrast to integral membrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins tend to collect in the water-soluble component, or fraction, of all the proteins extracted during a protein purification procedure.
Histamine: Histamine is a Biogenic Amine involved in Local Immune Responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter. As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens, histamine is produced by basophils and by mast cells found in nearby connective tissues. Histamine increases the permeability of the capillaries to white blood cells and other proteins.
Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase: Na+/K+-ATPase (Na+/K+ pump) is an enzyme located in the plasma membrane. It is found in the human cell and is found in all metazoa (animals).
Sodium-Potassium Pumps: In the cells active transport is responsible for high concentrations of potassium ions but low concentrations of sodium ions. This is responsible for sodium-potassium pump which moves these two ions in opposite directions across the plasma membrane. It is now known that the carrier is an ATPase and that it pumps three sodium ions out of the cell for every two potassium ions pumped in.
Active Transport Process
Inside of the Cell Outside of the Cell
[Low Conc.]

3 Na+→ → → Na-K Pump

→ ← [High Conc.]

← ← ← 2 K+

Autacoids: Autacoids are biological factors which act like local hormones, have a brief duration, act near the site of synthesis, and are not blood borne. Autacoids are primarily characterized by the effect they have upon smooth muscle. With respect to vascular smooth muscle, there are both vasoconstrictor and vasodilator autacoids.
Some notable autacoids are:
• Eicosanoids
• Angiotensin
• Neurotensin
• NO (nitric oxide)
• Kinins
• Histamine
• Serotonin
• Endothelins
Hormone: A chemical substance secreted by a cell or a group of cells into the blood for transport to a distance target; where it exerts its effect at very low concentration.
Enzymes: Enzymes are biomolecules that catalyze (i.e. increase the rates of chemical reactions). Nearly all known enzymes are proteins. However, certain RNA molecules can be effective biocatalysts too. These RNA molecules have come to be known as ribozymes. 
In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates.
The major classes of ENZYME:
i. Oxidoreductases
ii. Transferases
iii. Hydrolases
iv. Lyases
v. Isomerases
vi. Ligases

BLOOD

Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells — such as Nutrients and Oxygen — and transports waste products away from those same cells.
Blood’s pH: 7.35 - 7.45 (Basic in nature)
Functions of Blood: 
• Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is carried in red cells)
• Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids 
• Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid
• Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies
• Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism
• Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue damage
• Regulation of body pH 
• Regulation of core body temperature
• Hydraulic functions
Blood Cells:
1. RBC (Erythrocyte): 
• 4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female)
• Discard nuclei during development
2. WBC (Leucocytes): 
• 4,000-11,000 leukocytes
• Help the body against disease
3. Thrombocytes Platelets: 
• 200,000-500,000 thrombocytes
• Responsible for blood clotting (coagulation)
• They change fibrinogen into fibrin. This fibrin creates a mesh onto which red blood cells collect and clot, which then stops more blood from leaving the body and also helps to prevent bacteria from entering the body
Blood Plasma: About 55% of whole blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color. The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7 – 3.0 liters in an average human.
Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is the Iron Containing Oxygen Transport Metalloprotein in the RBC of vertebrates, and the tissues of some invertebrates.
In mammals, hemoglobin makes up about 97% of the red blood cells dry content, and around 35% of the total content (including water). Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs or gills to the rest of the body where it releases the oxygen for cell use.
ABO Blood Group System: The ABO blood group system is the most important blood type system in human blood transfusion. The associated anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies are usually IgM antibodies, which are usually produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, bacteria and viruses. 
Rh factor: The Rh factor genetic information is also inherited from our parents, but it is inherited independently of the ABO blood type alleles. There are 2 different alleles for the Rh factor known as Rh+ and Rh-.
Rh factor Possible genotypes
Rh+ Rh+/Rh+
Rh+/Rh-
Rh- Rh-/Rh-
Mother Father Child
Rh- Rh+ Rh+
Rh- Rh- Rh-

Antibody: Antibodies (immunoglobulins, Ig) are gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. Antibodies are produced by a kind of white blood cell called a β-cell. There are several different types of antibody heavy chains, and several different kinds of antibodies, which are grouped into different isotypes based on which heavy chain they possess. In placental mammals there are five antibody isotypes known as IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM.
Antigen: 
Biologically, an antigens is a substance that, when introduced into the tissue of humans or other vertebrates, causes the formation of antibodies. There are 2 biologic properties:
i. Immunogenicity, the capacity to induce antibody formation
ii. Specificity, governed by small chemical sites on the antigen molecule called the antigenic determinants
Chemically, antigens are usually proteins; however, some high-molecular-weight polysaccharides are antigenic.
Physically, antigens must possess a high molecular weight. A weight of more than 10,000 Daltons is required. 
Hemostasis: Stoppage of bleeding, blood vessel spasm, and platelet plug formation, blood coagulation.

URINE

Urine is a liquid waste product of the body secreted by the kidneys by a process of filtration from blood called urination and excreted through the urethra. Cellular metabolism generates numerous waste compounds, mainly rich in nitrogen, which is required to elimination from the bloodstream.
• Urine pH= 4.05 - 8.20
Composition of Urine: 
• Water: 96%
• Urea: 2%
• Organic constituents: Uric acid, Creatine, Ammonia.
• Inorganic constituents: Na, K, Cl, Phosphate, Sulphate, Oxalate.

HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

The major systems of the human body are:
1. The Circulatory System or Cardiovascular system: the blood circulation with heart,arteries and veins
2. Digestive system: processing food with mouth, esophagus, stomach and intestines.
3. Endocrine system: communicating within the body using hormones
4. The Excretory System or Urinary system: eliminating wastes from the body
5. Immune system: defending against disease-causing agents
6. Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails
7. Lymphatic system
8. Muscular system: moving the body with muscles
9. Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain and nerves
10. Reproductive system: the sex organs
11. Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, the lungs
12. Skeletal system: structural support and protection through bones

1. The Circulatory System or Cardiovascular system
Purpose: to deliver oxygenated blood to the various cells and organ systems in your body so they can undergo cellular respiration
Major Organs and Their Functions: 
Heart:
• the major muscle of the circulatory system
• pumps blood through its four chambers (two Ventricles and two Atria)
• pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs, where it gets oxygenated, returned to the heart, and then pumped out through the aorta to the rest of the body
• valve regulate the flow of blood between the chambers 
Arteries:
• carry blood away from the heart and to the major organs of the body
Veins:
• carry blood back to the heart away from the major organs of the body
Capillaries:
• small blood vessels where gas exchange occurs
Blood:
• the cells that flow through the circulatory system
• red blood cells contain hemoglobin, an iron-rich protein that carries O2
• white blood cells function in the immune system
• platelets help in blood clotting
Spleen:
• helps to filter out toxins in the blood 

2. The Digestive System
Purpose: to convert food particles into simpler macromolecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream and used by the body
Metabolism: 
Oxidation, Reduction, Hydrolysis
i. Major Site → 
• Liver (Phenobarbital)
ii. Minor Site → 
• Kidney (Histamine)
• Lungs (Alcohol)
• Skin (Vitamin - D)
• Plasma (Procaine)
• Intestine (Penicillin - G)
• Nerve Ending (Nor-adrenaline)  
Major Organs and their Functions: 
Mouth:
• to chew and grind up food
• saliva also begins the chemical breakdown
Esophagus:
• pipe connecting mouth to stomach
Stomach:
• secretes an extraordinarily strong acid (pH = 2) that leads to breakdown of food
• once the food is broken down in the stomach and mixed with digestive juices, it is called chyme
Pancreas:
• produces the hormone insulin that regulates Blood Sugar Levels
• also help neutralize stomach acid
Liver:
• produces bile, which breaks down fats in foods
Gallbladder:
• pouch-like organ that stores bile for future use
Small Intestine:
• after digestion is complete, the chyme enters the small intestine where it is absorbed into the bloodstream
• the chyme is propelled along by folded surfaces called villi, on the intestine
Large Intestine:
• Removes water from the chyme and gets the waste ready for excretion 

 Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine

3. The Endocrine System
Purpose: to control growth, development, metabolism and reproduction through the production and secretion of hormones
Major Organs:
• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal Glands
• Pancreas
• Testes
• Ovaries
Function: The endocrine system mainly uses blood vessels as information channels.

4. The Excretory System or Urinary system
Purpose: to rid the body of wastes, including excess water and salts
Major Organs and Their Functions: 
Kidneys:
• the main organs of the excretory system
• waste-laden blood enters the kidney and the kidney filters out urea, excess water and other waste products, which eventually travel out of the kidney as urine
• eventually they travel through the ureter to the urinary bladder
Rectum:
• solid (food) waste travels out of the body through the rectum 
Skin:
• sweat glands remove excess water and salts from the body
Lungs:
• expel the waste gas CO2 

 Kidneys → Skin → Lungs → Bladder → Large Intestine → Rectum 

5. The Immune System
Purpose: to remove infectious diseases and other pathogens from the human body
Major Organs and Their Functions: 
Skin:
• the skin is the body’s first line of defense
White Blood Cells:
• recognize disease agents (antigens) and create antibodies to tag and remove these antigens
• phagocytes are the white blood cell type that actually eats and destroys these antigens
Lymph Nodes:
• help restore fluid lost by the blood and return it to the circulatory system


6. Integumentary System
Major Organs:
• Skin
• Hair
• Nails
• the subcutaneous tissue below the skin
• assorted glands 
Functions:
• Protection: Skin gives an anatomical barrier between the internal and external environment in bodily defense; Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the immune system
• Sensation: Skin contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat, cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury; see somatosensory system and touch.
• Heat regulation: The skin contains a blood supply far greater than its requirements which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection and conduction.

7. Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system in vertebrates is a network of conduits that carry a clear fluid called lymph. It also includes the lymphoid tissue through which the lymph travels. 
Lymphoid tissue is found in many organs, particularly the lymph nodes, and in the lymphoid follicles associated with the digestive system such as the tonsils. The system also includes all the structures dedicated to the circulation and production of lymphocytes, which includes the spleen, thymus, bone marrow and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive system.
The lymphatic system can be broadly divided into the conducting system and the lymphoid tissue.

8. The Muscular System
Purpose: works with the skeletal and nervous system to produce movement, also helps to circulate blood through the human body
• muscle cells are fibrous
• muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary
Major Muscles in the Human Body: 
• Bi-ceps
• Tri-ceps
• Deltoids
• Glutes
• Hamstrings
Function: The main function of the muscular system is to help the body to move by contracting and relaxing muscles.

9. The Nervous System
Purpose: to coordinate the body’s response to changes in its internal and external environment
Somatic nervous system: SNS is associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the action of skeletal muscles, and with reception of external stimuli, which helps keep the body in touch with its surroundings (e.g., touch, hearing, and sight). The system includes all the neurons connected with skeletal muscles, skin and sense organs. The somatic nervous system consists of efferent nerves responsible for sending brain signals for muscle contraction.
Autonomic nervous system: ANS acts as a control system functioning largely below the level of consciousness, and controls visceral functions. The ANS affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, and perspiration, diameter of the pupils, urination, and sexual arousal.
Types of ANS:
• Sympathetic nervous system: Promotes a "fight or flight" response, corresponds with arousal and energy generation, and inhibits digestion.
• Parasympathetic nervous system: Promotes a "rest and digest" response, promotes calming of the nerves return to regular function, and enhances digestion.
Major Organs and Their Functions: 
Brain:
• control center of the body, where all processes are relayed through
• consists of cerebrum (controls though and senses) and cerebellum (controls motor functions)
Spinal Cord:
• sends instructions from the brain to the rest of the body and vice versa
• any organism with a major nerve cord is classified as a chordate
Nerves:
• conduct impulses to muscle cells throughout the body
Human has 5 Sense Organs: 
5 Sense Organs
Eye Ear Taste Buds Nose Skin
Sight Hearing Taste Smell Touch

1. Sight: The Eye is the organ of vision. It has a complex structure consisting of a transparent lens that focuses light on the retina.
2. Hearing: The Ear is the organ of hearing. The outer ear protrudes away from the head and is shaped like a cup to direct sounds toward the tympanic membrane, which transmits vibrations to the inner ear through a series of small bones.
3. Taste: The receptors for taste, called Taste Buds, are situated chiefly in the tongue, but they are also located in the roof of the mouth and near the pharynx. They are able to detect 4 basic tastes: salty, sweet, bitter, and sour.
4. Smell: The Nose is the organ responsible for the sense of smell. The cavity of the nose is lined with mucous membranes that have smell receptors connected to the olfactory nerve. The smells themselves consist of vapors of various substances. The smell receptors interact with the molecules of these vapors and transmit the sensations to the brain.
5. Touch: The sense of touch is distributed throughout the body. Nerve endings in the Skin and other parts of the body transmit sensations to the brain.

10. Human Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System:
Sperm Formation:
• MEIOSIS
• Form in testes
• Temperature important
• Scrotum
• Leave testes via epididymus to the vas deferens
Semen:
• Fluids help to transport, feed, and protect sperm 
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland
• Bulbourethral glands
Secondary Sexual Characteristics – Male:
 Produced by Testosterone
• Deeper voice
• Axillary and pubic hair
• Chest and facial hair
• Lengthen bones
• Increased size of testes for sperm production
Female Reproductive System:
Ovum Formation:
• MEIOSIS
• Ova are formed before birth
• 1 ovum per month is matured and released from ovaries
Secondary Sexual Characteristics – Female:
 Induced by increased LH, FSH, Estrogen, and Progesterone hormone levels
• Axillary and pubic hair
• Widen pelvis
• Enlarge mammary tissue
• Begin menstrual cycles
Fertilization:
• Occurs in upper 1/3 of Fallopian tube
• Once one sperm enters, egg membrane changes
• Fertilized Egg = Zygote 
Implantation:
• Implanted into thick walls of uterus
• Chorion membranes dig into uterus to form placenta
• Embryo supported via umbilical cord
• Once pregnant, progesterone levels stay high in mom
1st Trimester:
• Heart develops first
• Neural tube develops
• All body systems appear by Week 8 – Now a Fetus
2nd Trimester:
• Mostly growth
• Looks more like a baby
• Some preemies survive at this stage
3rd Trimester:
• More growth
• Kicking, rolling, stretching
• Eyes open – Week 32
• Lungs mature
• Rotates to head-down position
Birth:
• Labor: Uterine contractions begin, Cervix dilates to 10 cm
• Birth: Uterus pushes baby through vaginal canal
• Placenta delivered after

11. The Respiratory System
Purpose: to provide the body with a fresh supply of oxygen for cellular respiration and remove the waste product carbon dioxide
Major Organs and Their Functions: 
Nose:
• internal entry and exit point for air
Pharynx:
• serves as a passage way for both air and food at the back of the throat
Larynx:
• our “voice box”, as air passes over our vocal chords, we speak
Trachea:
• the “wind pipe”, or what connects our pharynx to our lungs
• a piece of skin, called the Epiglottis, covers the trachea when we swallow, preventing food from entering

12. The Skeletal System
Purpose: to provide structure and support to the human body. Bones are where new blood cells are generated (in the marrow), and require the mineral calcium for strength.
Major Bones of the Human Body: 
• femur (thigh bone)
• humerus (upper arm)
• radius and ulna (lower arm)
• cranium (skull)
• sternum (breastbone)
• clavicle (shoulder blade)
• fibula and tibia (calf) 
• vertebrae (back)
• scalpula (shoulder)
• pelvic bone
• coccyx (tail bone) 
• phalanges (fingers/toes)
Function: The skeleton has six main functions:
• Support 
• Attachment 
• Movement 
• Protection 
• Blood cell production 
• Storage 
NUTRIENTS

Macronutrients are essential nutrients—carbohydrates, proteins, and fats—that the body needs for energy and proper growth, metabolism, and function. They are called “macro” because we need these nutrients in large quantities compared to the micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), which are needed in smaller quantities. 

Macronutrients provide us with calories as follows:
• Carbohydrate: 4 calories per gram
• Protein: 4 calories per gram
• Fat: 9 calories per gram
Classification: 
A. Macronutrients
i. Carbohydrates
ii. Proteins
iii. Fats
B. Micronutrients
i. Vitamins
ii. Minerals, Trace Minerals, and Electrolytes
C. Fiber (Dietary fiber)
D. Water
CARBOHYDRATES: Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of fuel—glucose, which is needed by every cell in our body. They also provide valuable nutrients (vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids) and fiber, which is important for intestinal health. 

Chemically, carbohydrates are simple organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group. The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose. Carbohydrate’s general formula is (C – H 2 O) n 

Food Sources: There are two classes of carbohydrates—simple and complex.
• Simple carbohydrates include naturally occurring sugars in milk and fruit, and refined sugars (granulated sugar). 
• Complex carbohydrates include starches and indigestible dietary fibre. Starches are found in bread, pasta, rice, beans, and some vegetables.

Function: Carbohydrate fills numerous roles in living things, such as the storage and transport of energy (e.g.: starch, glycogen) and structural components (e.g.: cellulose in plants and chitin). Additionally, carbohydrates and their derivatives play major roles in the working process of the immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.
PROTEINS: Large molecules composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the DNA coding for the protein. E.g.: Enzymes, Hormones, and Antibodies.
Food Sources: Protein is found in animal products, nuts, legumes, and, to a lesser extent, in fruits and vegetables.

Function: Protein is a necessary component for building, maintenance, and repair of many body systems and processes, including:
• Production of collagen and keratin, which are the structural components of bones, teeth,
• hair, and the outer layer of skin; they help maintain the structure of blood vessels
• Manufacture of hormones, such as insulin and thyroid hormone
• Production of enzymes that control chemical reactions in the body
• Proper immune function—production of antibodies, white blood cells, and other
• immune factors
• Transportation of oxygen, vitamins, and minerals to target cells throughout the body
• Source of energy—the liver can use protein to make glucose when there is not enough carbohydrate available, such as when you skip a meal or follow a low-carb diet.

FATS: “Fat” has become a negative word as it is associated with obesity, yet we do need a certain amount of fat in our diets and on our bodies. The point to keep in mind is that there are good fats and bad fats. The good fats are the unsaturated fats, namely, the monounsaturated fats (olive, canola, and peanut oil) and polyunsaturated fats. The polyunsaturated fats provide us with essential fatty acids (EFAs). Saturated fats are found in animal products such as meat, poultry, milk, cheese, butter, and lard, as well as in tropical oils (such as palm, palm kernel, and coconut oil) and foods made from these oils. These fats are high in cholesterol and linked to heart disease, high cholesterol, obesity, and cancers of the breast, colon, and prostate.
Food Sources: Here is a breakdown of the EFAs and their sources:
• LA: Found in vegetable oils such as safflower, evening primrose, sunflower, corn, hemp, canola, and olive oil.
• GLA: Found in borage, blackcurrant, and evening primrose oils.
• AA: Found in meat and eggs. We get adequate AA through diet. Too much of this fat is not good, as it causes inflammation.
• ALA: Found in fl axseed and hemp oil and, to a lesser extent, in nuts, green leafy vegetables, wheat germ, and blackcurrant seeds.
• EPA and DHA: Found in fatty fish, such as salmon, mackerel, herring, cod, sardines, and tuna.

Function:
• Growth and development of brain, nervous system, adrenal glands, sex organs, inner ear, and eyes
• Energy (fat is the most concentrated source of energy)
• Absorbing fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, K, and carotenoids)
• Maintaining cell membrane integrity
• Regulation of cell processes such as gene activation and expression, enzyme function, and fat oxidation
• Production of hormones and chemical messengers

VITAMINS: There are 13 essential vitamins that our bodies need for proper growth, function, and maintenance of healthy tissues. The vitamins are either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The B-vitamins and vitamin C dissolve in water and are easily eliminated from the body. Adverse reactions, even with high-dose supplements, are rare with these vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, and E) are not readily excreted from the body and have the potential to accumulate in the tissues and cause adverse effects at high doses.

i. Fat soluble: 
• Vitamin A
• Vitamin D
• Vitamin E
• Vitamin K
ii. Water soluble:
• Vitamin B- Complex
• Vitamin C
MINERALS, TRACE MINERALS, AND ELECTROLYTES: Minerals are elements that originate in the earth. The body cannot make minerals so they must be obtained through the diet and/or supplements. Both plant and animal foods provide minerals. Plants obtain minerals from the soil they are grown in. Animals get minerals from the plants they eat, and then we get these minerals indirectly by eating the animal products. There are also some minerals present in drinking water, but this varies with geographic location, as does the mineral content of plants. Minerals are categorized according to our daily requirements. 
Calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus are considered major minerals since we require a substantial amount of these for health and wellness.
The trace minerals, which are required in smaller amounts, are chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. 
The minerals potassium and sodium are known as electrolytes, substances that dissociate into ions (charged particles) in solution, making them capable of conducting electricity.

DIETARY FIBRE: Dietary fiber is the indigestible portion of plant foods that pushes food through the digestive system, absorbing water and easing defecation.
Chemically, dietary fiber consists of Non-Starch Polysaccharides such as Cellulose and many other plant components such as Dextrins, Insulin, Lignin, Waxes, Chitins, Pectins, Beta-Glucans and Oligosaccharides.
Dietary fiber can be soluble or insoluble. Soluble fiber cannot be digested. But it does change as it passes through the digestive tract, being transformed by bacteria there. Soluble fiber also absorbs water to become a gelatinous substance that passes through the body. Insoluble fiber passes through the body largely unchanged.
Eating fiber has many benefits for our health. The consumption of soluble fiber has been shown to protect us from developing heart disease by reducing our cholesterol levels. The consumption of insoluble fiber reduces our risk of developing constipation, colitis, colon cancer, and hemorrhoids.
WATER: Our body is estimated to be about (60–70) % water. Blood is mostly water, and our muscles, lungs, and brain all contain a lot of water. Our body needs water to regulate body temperature and to provide the means for nutrients to travel to all our organs. Water also transports oxygen to our cells, removes waste, and protects our joints and organs.

PATHOLOGY / DISEASE

Major Heart Disease
Heart Failure: HF is a complex, progressive disorder in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood to meet the needs of the body. Its cardinal symptoms are dyspnea, fatigue, and fluid retention.
Arrhythmias: The arrhythmias are conceptually simple dysfunctions cause abnormalities in impulse formation and conduction in the myocardium.
Angina: Angina pectoris is a characteristic sudden, severe, pressing chest pain radiating to the neck, jaw, back, and arms. It is caused by coronary blood flow that is insufficient to meet the O2 demands of the myocardium, leading to ischemia.
Hypertension: Hypertension results from increased peripheral vascular smooth muscle tone, which leads to increased arteriolar resistance and reduced capacitance of the venous system.
Normal Blood Pressure [Generally acceptable level]
AGE PRESSURE
20 years 140/90 mm of Hg
50 years 160/95 mm of Hg
75 years 170/105 mm of Hg
Degree of Hypertension
Category Diastolic BP mm Hg Systolic BP mm Hg
Normal <85 <130
High Normal 85-89 130-139
H y p e r t e n s I o n
Stage- 1 [Mild] 90-99 140-159
Stage- 2 [Moderate] 100-109 160-179
Stage- 3 [Severe] 110-119 180-209
Stage- 4 [Very severe] =120 =210

AIDS
AIDS is a collection of symptoms and infections resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by HIV. 
Pathophysiology of AIDS:
1. Direct viral killing of T – Cells
2. Increased rate of apoptosis
3. Killing of CD4+ T cells by CD8 Cytotoxic lymphocytes
Hyperlipidemias: The incidence of Coronary Heart Disease is correlated with High Levels of Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) - Cholesterol & Triacylglycerols and with Low Levels of High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) - Cholesterol.

TOXICOLOGY

Toxicology: A relatively young biological science that involves a complex interrelationship among the – Dose of toxins, Absorption of toxins, Distribution of toxins, Metabolism of toxins & Elimination of toxins.
LD50: The term LD50 refers to the dose of a toxic substance that kills 50% of a test population.
Toxic Effect: The result of excessive pharmacological action of drug due to over dosage / prolonged used.
Endotoxins: Endotoxins are toxins associated with certain bacteria. It is a structural component in the bacteria which is released mainly when bacteria are lysed. Endotoxins are frequent contaminants in plasmid DNA prepared from bacteria or proteins expressed from bacteria, and must be removed from the DNA or protein to avoid unwanted inflammatory responses prior to in vivo applications such as gene therapy.
Poison: Any substance which has a harmful effect on a living system.
Scope of Toxicology: Descriptive Toxicology, Mechanistic Toxicology, Clinical Toxicology, Forensic Toxicology, Regulatory Toxicology.
Side Effects: Unwanted but often unavailable pharmacodynamic effects that occurs at therapeutic doses.
Adverse Effect: Any noxious change which is suspected to be due to a drug occurs at doses normally used in man.
Types of Adverse Effect: 2 Types:
i. Predictable Reaction
ii. Unpredictable Reaction
Drug-Drug Interection: A drug interaction is a situation in which a substance affects the activity of a drug, i.e. the effects are increased or decreased, or they produce a new effect that neither produces on its own. Typically, interaction between drugs come to mind (drug-drug interaction). However, interactions may also exist between drugs & foods (drug-food interactions), as well as drugs & herbs (drug-herb interactions).
Re-enforcements: Ability of the drug to produce effects that make the user wishes to take it again.

Complementary & Alternative Medicines

Traditional medicine: Traditional medicine (indigenous or folk medicine) developed over centuries within various societies before the era of modern medicine. Practices known as traditional medicines include Herbal, Ayurvedic, Unani, Ancient Iranian, Siddha, Islamic and Traditional Chinese Medicine, Acupuncture, Muti, Ifá.
WHO defines traditional medicine as: “the health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being”.
Alternative Medicine: Used in the modern Western world. Commonly cited examples include Naturopathy, Chiropractic, Herbalism, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Unani, Ayurveda, Meditation, Yoga, Biofeedback, Hypnosis, Homeopathy, Acupuncture, and Diet-Based Therapies, in addition to a range of other practices. 
Ayurveda: In Sanskrit, the word Ayurveda comprises the words Ayus, meaning 'life' and Veda, meaning 'science'. Ayurveda ('science of life') is a system of traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine. The Sushruta Samhita and the Charaka Samhita were influential works on traditional medicine during this era.
Homeopathy: Homeopathy is a holistic form of complementary medicine, aiming to treat the whole person rather than just the physical symptoms. It works on the principle that the mind and body are so strongly linked that physical conditions cannot be successfully treated without an understanding of the person’s constitution and character.
Homeopathy is a form of alternative medicine that treats patients with heavily diluted preparations that are thought to cause effects similar to the symptoms presented, first expounded by German physician Samuel Hahnemann in 1796. Homeopathic remedies are prepared by serial dilution with shaking by forceful striking ("succussing") after each step under the assumption that this increases the effect of the treatment; this process is referred to as "potentization". Dilution often continues until none of the original substance remains.
Homeopathic remedies generally contain few or no pharmacologically active ingredients, and for such remedies to have pharmacological effect would violate fundamental principles of science.
Herbalism: Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. Herbalism is also known as Botanical Medicine, Medical Herbalism, Herbal Medicine, Herbology, and Phytotherapy. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts.

DEFINITIONS OF SELECTED DRUG CATEGORIES

A
Abradant: An agent that removes an external layer, such as dental plaque. [Pumice]
Absorbent: A drug that takes up other chemicals into its substance, use to reduce the free availability of toxic chemicals. [Polycarbophil, gastrointestinal absorbent]
Acidifier, Systemic: A drug that lowers internal body pH, useful in restoring normal pH in patients with systemic alkalosis. [Ammonium Chloride]
Acidifier, Urinary: A drug that lower the pH of the renal filtrate and urine. [Sodium Dihydrogen Phosphate] 
Adrenergic: A drug that activates organs innervated by the sympathetic nervous system; a sympathomimetic drug. [Epinephrine]
Adrenocorticosteroid, Anti-inflammatory: An adrenal cortex hormone that regulates organic metabolism and inhibits inflammatory response; a glucocorticoid. [Prednisolone]
Adrenocorticosteroid, Salt-regulating: An adrenal cortex hormone that regulates Na / K balance in the body; a mineralcorticoid. [Desoxycorticosterone Acetate] 
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone: A hormone that stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids. [Corticotropin]
Adsorbent: A drug that binds other chemicals onto its surface, used to reduce the free availability of toxic chemicals. [Kaolin, gastrointestinal adsorbent]
Agonist: A drug that reacts with and activates physiological receptors and induces the associated biologic response. [Morphine, opioid receptor agonist; Isoproterenol, Beta adrenergic receptor agonist]
Alcohol-Abuse Deterrent: A drug that alters physiology so that unpleasant symptoms follow ingestion of ethanol-containing products. [Disulfiram]
Alkalinizer, Systemic: A drug that raises internal body pH, useful restoring normal pH in patients with systemic acidosis. [Sodium Bicarbonate]
Alkylating Agent: An anti-neoplastic drug that attacks malignant cells by reacting covalently with their DNA. [Chlorambucil]
Alpha Receptor Agonist: A drug that activates sympathetic nervous system alpha receptors, e.g. to induce vasoconstriction. [Norepinephrine]
Alpha Receptor Antagonist: A drug that reacts asymptomatically with sympathetic nervous system alpha receptors and prevents their endogenous activities, e.g. to induce vasodilation. [Phentolamine]
Anabolic Steroid: An androgen analogue with relatively greater anabolic activity, used to treat catabolic disorders. [Methandrostenolone]
Analeptic: A central nervous system stimulant sometimes used to stimulate respiration during severe central nervous system depression. [Doxapram]
Analgesic: A drug that suppresses pain perception without inducing unconsciousness. [Morphine Sulfate, opioid analgesic; Aspirin, nonopioid analgesic]  
Androgen: A hormone that stimulates and maintains male reproductive function and sex characteristics. [Testosterone]
Anesthetic, General: A drug that eliminates pain perception by inducing unconsciousness. [Ether, inhalation anesthetics, Thiopental Sodium, intravenous anesthetics]
Anesthetic, Local: A drug that eliminates pain perception in a limited body area by local action on sensory nervous. [Procaine]
Anesthetic, Topical: A local anesthetic that is effective upon application to mucous membranes. [Tetracaine]
Angiotensin Converting Enzyme [ACE] Inhibitors: A drug that inhibits biotransformation of Angiotensin – 1 into vasoconstricting Angiotensin – 2, used to treat hypertension. [Captopril]
Anorexic: A drug that suppresses appetite, usually by elevating mood. [Phentermine]
Antacid: A drug that neutralizes excess gastric acid. [Aluminum Hydroxyl Gel]
Antagonist: A drug that reacts asymptomatically with physiological receptors and prevents their endogenous activation. [Naloxone, Opioid receptor antagonist, Propranolol, Beta adrenergic receptor antagonist]
Anthelmintics: A drug that eradicates intestinal worm infestation. [Thiabendazole]
Anti-acne Agent: A drug that combats the lesions of acne vulgaris. [Tretinoin]
Anti-adrenergic: A drug that inhibits response to sympathetic nerve impulses and adrenergic drugs; a sympatholytic drug. [Phentolamine, alpha adrenergic antagonist; Propranolol, beta adrenergic antagonist]
Anti-amebic: A drug that kills or inhibits protozoan parasites such as Entamoeba histolytica, causative agent of amebiasis. [Metronidazole, intestinal anti-amebic; Chloroquine, extraintestinal anti-amebic] 
Anti-androgen: A drug that inhibits response to an androgen hormone.
Anti-anemic: A drug use to treat anemia.
Anti-anginal: A coronary vasodilator useful in preventing or treating attacks of angina pectoris. [Nitroglycerin]
Anti-arrhythmic: A coronary depressant useful in suppressing rhythm irregularities of the heart. [Procainamide]
Anti-arthritic: A drug that reduces the joint inflammation of arthritis. [Prenisolone, Glucocorticoid; Indomethacin, NSAID]
Anti-bacterial: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic bacteria. [Penicillin G, systemic antibacterial; Nitrofurantoin, urinary antibacterial; Bacitracin, topical antibacterial]
Anti-biotic: A drug originally of microbial origin used to kill or inhibit bacterial and other infections. [Penicillin, Tetracycline]
Anti-cancer Drugs: Anti-cancer or anti-neoplastic drugs are used to treat malignancies, cancerous growths. Drug therapy may be used alone, or in combination with other treatments such as surgery or radiation therapy. Cancer chemotherapy strives to cause a lethal cytotoxic event in the cancer cell that can arrest a tumor’s progression.
Anti-cholesterol Agent: A drug that lowers plasma cholesterol level. [Colestipol]
Anti-cholinergic: A drug that inhibits response to parasympathetic nerves impulses and cholinergic drugs; a parasympatholytic drug. [Atropine]
Anti-cholinesterase Antidote: A drug that reactivates cholinesterase enzyme after its inactivation by organophosphate poisons. [Pralidoxime]
Anti-coagulant Antagonist: A drug that opposes over dosage of anti-coagulant drugs. [Phytonadione, supplies vitamin K to oppose vitamin K – antagonist anti-coagulants]
Anti-coagulant, Systemic: A drug administered to slow clotting of circulating blood. [Warfarin]
Anti-coagulant, for Storage of Whole Blood: A non-toxic agent added to collected blood to prevent clotting. [Anti-coagulant Citrate Dextrose Solution]
Anti-convulsant: An anti-epileptic drug administered prophylactically to prevent seizures, or a drug that arrests convulsions by inducing general central nervous system depression. [Phenytoin, anti-epileptic prophylactic; Diazepam, central nervous system depressant anti-convulsant]
Anti-depressant: A centrally acting drug that induces mood elevation, useful in treating mental depression. [Amitriptyline]
Anti-diabetic: A drug that supplies insulin or stimulates secretion of insulin, useful in treating diabetes mellitus. [Insulin Injection, supplies insulin; Tolbutamide, stimulates insulin secretion]
Anti-diarrheal: A drug that inhibits intestinal peristalsis, used to treat diarrhea. [Diphenoxylate]
Anti-diuretic: A drug that promotes renal water reabsorption, thus reducing urine volume, used to treat neurogenic diabetes insipidus. [Desmopressin]
Anti-dote, General Purpose: A drug that reduces the effects of ingested poisons [or drug overdoses] by absorbing toxic material. [Activated Charcoal]
Anti-dote Specific: A drug that reduces the effects of a systemic poison [or drug overdoses] by a mechanism that relates to the particular poison. [Dimercaprol, specific antidote for arsenic, mercury, and gold poisoning]
Anti-eczematic: A topical drug that aids in control of chronic exudative skin lesions. [Coal Tar]
Anti-emetic: A drug that suppress nausea and vomiting. [Prochlorperazine]
Anti-eneuretic: A drug that aids in control of bed-wetting [enuresis]. [Imipramine]
Anti-epileptic: A drug that prevents epileptic seizures upon prophylactic administration. [Ethosuximide]
Anti-estrogen: A drug that inhibits action of estrogenic hormones. [Tamoxifen]
Anti-fibrinolytic: A drug that promotes homeostasis by inhibiting clot dissolution [fibrinolysis]. [Aminocaproic Acid]
Anti-filarial: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic filarial worms. [Diethylcarbamazine]
Anti-flatuent: A drug that reduces gastrointestinal gas. [Simethicone]
Anti-fungal, Systemic: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic fungi. [Griseofulvin]
Anti-fungal, Topical: A drug applied externally to kill or inhibit pathogenic fungi. [Tolnaftate]
Anti-glaucoma Agent: A drug that lowers intraocular fluid pressure, used to treat glaucoma. [Methazolamide reduces fluid formation; Isofluorophate promotes fluid drainage]
Anti-gonadotropin: A drug that inhibits anterior pituitary secretion of gonadotropins, used to suppress ovarian malfunction. [Danazol]
Anti-gout Agent: A drug that reduces tissue deposits of uric acid in chronic gout or suppresses the intense inflammatory reaction of acute gout. [Allopurinol for chronic gout; Indomethacin for acute gout]
Anti-hemophilic: A drug that replaces blood clotting factors absent in the hereditary disease hemophilia. [Anti-hemophilic factor]
Anti-herpes Agent: A drug that inhibits replication of Herpes simplex virus, used to treat genital herpes. [Acyclovir]
Anti-histaminic: A drug that antagonizes histamine action at H1 histamine receptors, useful in suppressing the histamine-induced symptoms of allergy. [Chloropheniramine]
Anti-hyperlipidemic: A drug that lowers plasma cholesterol and lipid levels. [Clofibrate]
Anti-hypertensive: A drug that lowers arterial blood pressure, especially the elevated diastolic pressure of hypertension. [Guanethidine]
Anti-hypocalcemic: A drug that elevates plasma Ca level, useful in treating hypocalcaemia. [Parathyroid injection]
Anti-hypoglycemic: A drug that elevates plasma glucose level, useful in treating hypoglycemia. [Glucagon]
Anti-infective, Topical [or Local]: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic microorganisms and is suitable for sterilizing skin and wounds. [Povidone iodine liquid soap]
Anti-inflammatory: A drug that inhibits physiologic response to cell damage [inflammation]. {Prednisolone, Adrenocorticosteroid; Ibuprofen, non-steroid]
Anti-insomnia Drugs: Anti-insomnia drugs are medications that help people who have difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, awakening early, or who have disturbed sleep patterns resulting in insufficient sleep.
Anti-leishmanial: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic protozoa of the genus Leishmania. [Hydroxystilbamidine isethionate]
Anti-leprotic: A drug that kills or inhibits Mycobacterium leprae, causative agent of leprosy. [Dapsone]
Anti-malarial: A drug that kills or inhibits protozoa of the genus Plasmodium, causative agents of malaria. [Chloroquine]
Anti-manic: A drug that suppresses the excitement phase [mania] of bipolar disorder. [Lithium Carbonate]
Anti-metabolite: A drug that attacks malignant cells or pathogenic cells by serving as a nonfunctional substitute for an essential metabolite. [Fluorouracil, anti-neoplastic anti-metabolite]
Anti-microbial: An antimicrobial is a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, or protozoans, as well as destroying viruses. Antimicrobial drugs either kill microbes (microbicidal) or prevent the growth of microbes (microbistatic). 
Main classes of Antimicrobial Drugs: 
• Anti-biotics
• Anti-virals
• Anti-fungals
• Anti-parasitics
Anti-migraine Agent: A drug that reduces incidence or severity of migraine vascular headaches. [Methylsergide]
Anti-motion Sickness Agent: A drug that suppresses motion-induced nausea, vomiting, and vertigo. [Dimenhydrinate]
Anti-muscarinic: An anti-cholinergic drug that inhibits symptoms mediated by acetylcholine receptors of visceral organs [muscarinic receptors]. [Atropine]
Anti-nauseant: A drug suppresses nausea and vomiting; an anti-emetic. [Ondansetron]
Anti-neoplastic: A drug that attacks malignant [neoplastic] cells in the body. [Chlorambucil, alkylating agent]
Anti-parasitic: A drug that eradicates parasitic arthropods, helminthes, protozoa, etc. [Lindane for scabies; Thiabendazole for intestinal worms; Metronidazole for amebic dysentery]
Anti-parkinsonism / Anti-dyskinetic: A drug that suppresses the neurologic disturbances and symptoms of parkinsonism. [Levodopa]
Anti-peristaltic: A drug that inhibits intestinal motility; an anti-diarrheal drug. [Diphenoxylate]
Anti-platelet Agent: A drug that inhibits aggregation of blood platelets, used to prevent heart attack. [Aspirin]
Anti-protozoal: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic protozoa. [Metronidazole]
Anti-pruritic: A drug that reduces itching [pruritus]. [Trimeprazine, systemic anti-pruritic; Menthol, topical anti- pruritic]
Anti-psoriatic: A drug that suppresses the lesions and symptoms of psoriasis. [Methotrexate, systemic anti- psoriatic; Anthralin, topical anti-psoriatic]
Anti-psychotic: A drug that suppresses symptoms of psychoses of various diagnostic types. [Haloperidol]
Anti-pyretic: A drug that restores normal body temperature in the presence of fever. O/R, Lowering an elevated body temperature and relieving pain without impairing consciousness. [Acetaminophen]
Anti-rachitic: A drug with vitamin D activity, useful in treating vitamin D deficiency and rickets. [Cholecalciferol]
Anti-rheumatic: An anti-inflammatory drug used to treat arthritis and rheumatoid disorders. [Indomethacin]
Anti-rickettsial: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic microorganisms of the genus Rickettsia. [Chlorampenicol]
Anti-schistosomal: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic flukes of the genus Schistosoma. [Oxaminiquine]
Anti-scorbutic: A drug with vitamin C activity, useful in treating vitamin C deficiency and scurvy. [Ascorbic Acid]
Anti-seborrheic: A drug that aids in the control of seborrheic dermatitis [dandruff]. [Selenium Sulfide]
Anti-septics: Anti-septics are anti-microbial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction.
Anti-spasmodic: A drug that inhibits motility of visceral smooth muscles. [Atropine]
Anti-thyroid Agent: A drug that reduces thyroid hormone action, usually by inhibiting hormone synthesis. [Methimazole]
Anti-treponemal: A drug that kills or inhibits Treponema pallidum, causative agent of syphilis. [Penicillin]
Anti-trichomonal: A drug that kills or inhibits pathogenic protozoa of the genus Trichomonas. [Metronidazole]
Anti-tubercular: A drug that kills or inhibits Mycobacterium tuberculosis, causative agent of tuberculosis. [Isoniazid]
Anti-tussive: A drug that suppresses coughing. [Dextromethorpan]
Anti-viral: A drug that kills or inhibits viral infections. [Idoxuridine, Ophthalmic Anti-viral]
Anti-viral, Prophylactic: A drug useful in preventing [rather than treating] viral infections. [Amantadine, prophylactic for influenza]
Anti-xerophthalmic: A drug with vitamin A activity, useful in treating vitamin A deficiency and xerophthalmia. [Vitamin A]
Anxiolytic: A drug suppresses symptoms of anxiety. [Diazepam]
Astringent: A drug used topically to toughen and shrink tissues. [Aluminum Acetate Solution]
Astringent, Ophthalmic: A mild astringent suitable for use in the eye. [Zinc Sulfate]
B
Barbiturate: A sedative-hypnotic drug that contains the barbituric acid moiety in its chemical structure. [Phenobarbital]
Belladonna Alkaloid: A plant principle derived from Atropa belladonna and related species, with anti-cholinergic action. [Atropine]
Benzodiazepine: A sedative-anxiolytic-muscle relaxant drug that contains the benzodiazepine moiety in its chemical structure. [Diazepam]
Beta Receptor Agonist: A drug that activates sympathetic nervous system beta receptors, e.g. to induce bronchodilation. [Isoproterenol]
Beta Receptor Antagonist: A drug that reacts asymptomatically with sympathetic nervous system beta receptors and prevents their endogenous activation, e.g. to oppose sympathetic stimulation of the heart. [Propranolol]
β - Receptor blockers: Beta blockers are a class of drugs used for the management of cardiac arrhythmias, cardio-protection after myocardial infarction (heart attack), and hypertension. Beta blockers may also be referred to as beta-adrenergic blocking agents, beta-adrenergic antagonists, or beta antagonists.
• β1 - Adrenergic Receptors are located mainly in the Heart and in the Kidneys. 
• β2 - Adrenergic Receptors are located mainly in the Lungs, GIT, Liver, Uterus, Vascular Smooth Muscle, and Skeletal Muscle. 
• β3 - Adrenergic Receptors are located in Fat Cells.
Bone Metabolism Regulator: A drug that slows calcium turnover in bone, used to treat Paget’s disease. [Etidronate]
Bronchodilator: A drug that expands bronchiolar airways, useful in treating asthma. [Isoproterenol, adrenergic bronchodilator; Oxytriphylline, smooth muscle relaxant bronchodilator]
C
Calcium Channel Blocker: An anti-anginal drug that acts by impairing function of trans-membrane calcium channels of vascular smooth muscle cells. [Verapamil]
Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors: A drug that inhibits the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, the therapeutic effects of which are diuresis and reduces formation of intra-ocular fluid. [Acetazolamide]
Cardiac Depressant, Anti-arrhythmic: A drug that depresses myocardial function, useful in treating cardiac arrhythmias. [Procainamide]
Cardiac Glycoside: A plant principle derived from Digitalis purpurea and related species, with cardiotonic action. [Digoxin]
Cardiotonic: A drug that increases myocardial contractile force, useful in treating congestive heart failure. [Digoxin]
Catecholamine Synthesis Inhibitor: A drug that inhibits biosynthesis of catecholamine neurotransmitters such as Norepinephrine. [Metyrosine]
Cathartic: A dug that promotes defection, usually considered stronger in action than a laxative. [Danthron]
Caustic: A topical drugs that destroys tissue on contact, useful in removing skin lesions. [Toughened Silver Nitrate]
Centrally Acting Drug: A drug that produces its therapeutic effect by action on the central nervous system, usually designated by type of therapeutic action. [Sedative, Hypnotic, Anti-convulsant, etc]
Cephalosporin: An anti-microbial drug that contains the cephalosporin moiety in its chemical structure. [Cefotaxime]
Chelating Agent: A complexing agent that binds metal ions into stable ring structures, useful in treating poisoning. [Edetate Calcium Disodium, chelating agent for lead]
Cholelitholytic: A drug that promotes dissolution of gallstones. [Ursodoxycholic acid]
Choleretic: A drug that increases bile secretion by the liver. [Dehydrocholic acid]
Cholinergic: A drug that activates organs innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system; a parasympathomimetic drug. [Neostigmine, systemic cholinergic; Pilocarpine, ophthalmic cholinergic]
Chrysotherapeutic: A drug containing gold, used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. [Auranofin]
Coagulant: see Hemostatic, Systemic.
Contraceptive, Oral: An orally administered drug that prevents conception. Currently available oral contraceptives are for use by females. [Norethindrone Acetate and Ethinyl Estradiol Tablets]
Contraceptive, Topical: A spermicidal agent used topically in the vagina to prevent conception. [Nonoxynol – 9]
Cycloplegic: An anti-cholinergic drug used topically in the eye to induce paralysis of accommodation [cycloplegia] and dilation of the pupil. [Cyclopentolate]
D
Decongestant, Nasal: An adrenergic drug used orally or topically to induce vasoconstriction in nasal passages. [Phenylephrine]
Demulcent: A bland viscous liquid, usually water-based, used to coat and soothe damaged or inflamed skin or mucous membranes.
Dental Caries Prophylactic: A drug applied to the teeth to reduce the incidence of cavities. [Stannous Fluoride]
Dentin Desensitizer: A drug applied to the teeth to reduce the sensitivity of exposed sub-enamel dentin. [Zinc Chloride]
Depigmenting Agent: A drug that inhibits melanin production in the skin, used to induce general depigmentation in certain splotchy depigmented conditions [e.g. Vitiligo]. [Hydroquinone]
Detergent: An emulsifying agent used as a cleanser. [Hexachlorophene Liquid Soap, anti-infective detergent]
Diagnostic Aid: A drug used to determine the functional state of a body organ or to determine the presence of disease. {Peptavlon, gastric secretion indicator; Fluorescein Sodium, corneal trauma indicators]
Digestive Aid: A drug that promotes digestion, usually by supplementing a gastrointestinal enzyme. [Pancreatin]
Disinfectant: An agent that destroys microorganisms on contact and suitable for sterilizing inanimate objects. [Formaldehyde Solution]
Diuretic: A drug that promotes renal excretion of electrolytes and water, useful in treating generalized edema. [Furosemide, loop diuretic; Hydrochlorothiazide, thiazide diuretic; Triamterene, potassium-sparing diuretic]
Dopamine Receptor Agonist: A drug that activates dopamine receptors, e.g. to inhibit anterior pituitary secretion of prolactin. [Bromocryptine]
E
Emetic: A drug that induces vomiting, useful in expelling ingested but unabsorbed poisons. [Ipecac Syrup]
Emollient: A topical drug, especially an oil or fat, used to soften the skin and make it more pliable. [Cold Cream]
Ergot Alkaloid: A plant principle derived from the fungus Claviceps purpurea grown on rye or other grains. [Ergonovine, uterine contractant; Ergotamine]
Estrogen: A hormone that stimulants and maintains female reproductive organs and sex characteristics and functions in the uterine cycle. [Ethinyl Estradinol]
Expectorant: A drug that increases respiratory tract secretions, lowers their viscosity, and promotes removal. [Potassium Iodide]
F
Fecal Softener: A drug that promotes defecation by softening the feces. [Docusate]
Fertility Agent: A drug that promotes ovulation in women of low fertility or spermatogenesis in men of low fertility. [Clomiphene]
Fibrinolytic proteolytic: An enzyme drug used topically to hydrolyze exudates of infected and inflammatory lesions. [Fibrinolysin and Desoxyribonuclease, Bovine]
G
Galactokinetic: A drug used to initiate lactation after childbirth. [Oxytocin Nasal Spray]
Glucocorticoid: An adrenocortical hormone that regulates organic metabolism and inhibits inflammatory response. [Betamethasone]
Gonadotropin: A drug that supplies the gonad-stimulating actions of follicle-stimulating hormone [FSH] and luteinizing hormone [LH], used to promote fertility. [Menotropins contains FSH and LH, Human Chorionic Gonadotropin has LH-like activity]
Growth Hormone, Human: A drug that duplicates endogenous growth hormone, used in children to treat growth failure due to growth hormone lack. [Somatrem]
H
Heavy Metal Antagonist: A drug used as an anti-dote to poisoning with toxic metals such as arsenic and mercury. [Dimercaprol]
Hematopoietic: A vitamin that stimulates formation of blood cells, useful in treating vitamin-deficiency anemia. [Cyanocobalamin]
Hematinic: A drug that promotes hemoglobin formation by supplying iron. [Ferrous Sulfate]
Hemorheologic Agent: A drug that improves the flow properties of blood by reducing viscosity. [Pentoxyfylline]
Hemostatic, Local: A drug applied to a bleeding surface to promote clotting or to serve as a clot matrix. [Thrombin, clot promoter, Oxidizer Cellulose, clot matrix]
Haemostatic, Systemic: A drug that stops bleeding by inhibiting systemic fibrinolysis. [Aminocaproic Acid]
Histamine H1 Receptor Antagonist: A drug used to combat the histamine-induced symptoms of allergy; anti-histamine [Chlorpheniramine]
Histamine H2 Receptor Antagonist: A drug that inhibits histamine-mediated gastric acid secretion, used to treat peptic and duodenal ulcers. [Cimetidine]
Hormone: A drug that duplicates action of a physiologic cell regulator [hormone]. [Insulin, Estradiol, Thyroxine]
Hydantoin: An anti-epileptic drug that contains the hydantoin moiety in its chemical structure. [Phenytoin]
Hydrolytic, Injectable: An enzyme drug that promotes the diffusion of other injected drugs through connective tissues. [Hyaluronidase]
Hyperglycemic: A drug that elevates blood glucose level. [Glucagon]
Hypnotic: A central nervous system depressant used to induce sleep. [Flurazepam]
Hypotensive: see Anti-hypertensive.
I
Immunoglobulin: Anti-body protein derived from blood serum, used to confer passive immunity to infectious disease. [Immunizing agent, Passive]
Immunizing Agent, Active: An anti-gen that induces anti-body production against a pathogenic microorganism, used to provide permanent but delayed protection against infection. [Tetanus Toxoid]
Immunizing Agent, Passive: A drug containing anti-bodies against a pathogenic microorganism, used to provide immediate but temporary protection against infection. [Tetanus Immune Globulin, Immune Globulin]
Immunosuppressant: A drug that inhibits immune response to foreign materials, used to suppress rejection of tissue grafts. [Azathioprine]
Inotropic Agent: A drug that increases the contractile strength of heart muscle; a cardiotonic. [Digitoxin, Dopamine]
Ion Exchange Resin: A drug that in the gastrointestinal tract takes up ions present in a toxic amount with equivalent release of nontoxic ions. [Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate takes up potassium ions with release of sodium ions]
Irritant, Local: A drug that reacts weakly and non-specifically with biological tissue, used topically to induce a mild inflammation response. [Camphor]
K
Keratolytic: A topical drug that toughens and protects skin. [Compound Benzoin Tincture]
L
Laxative: A drug that promotes defecation, usually considered milder in action than a cathartic. [Methylcellulose, bulk laxative, Mineral oil, lubricant laxative; Sodium Phosphates Oral Solution, saline laxative]
Leprostatic: see Anti-leprotic.
Loop Diuretic: A diuretic with renal site of action in the thick ascending loop of Henle. Loop diuretics inhibit the Na-K-Cl co-transporter in the thick ascending limb. This transporter normally reabsorbs about 25% of the sodium load. [Furosemide]
M
MAO Inhibitor: see Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor.
Metal Complexing Agent: A drug that binds metal ions, useful in treating metal poisoning. [Dimercaprol, complexing agent for arsenic, mercury, and gold]
Mineralocorticoid: An adrenocortical hormone that regulates sodium/potassium balance in the body. [Desoxycorticosterone Acetate]
Miotic: A cholinergic drug used topically in the eye to induce constriction of the pupil [miosis]. [Pilocarpine]
Monoclonal Anti-body: A highly specific immunoglobulin produced by cell culture cloning. [Muromonab, CD-3, inactivates T-lymphocytes, that reject tissue grafts]
Mucolytic: A drug that hydrolyzes mucoproteins, useful in reducing the viscosity of pulmonary mucus. [Acetylcysteine]
Multi-vitamin: A multivitamin is a preparation intended to supplement a human diet with vitamins, dietary minerals and other nutritional elements. Such preparations are available in the form of tablets, capsules, pastilles, powders, liquids and injectable formulations. Multivitamin supplements are commonly provided in combination with minerals.
Muscle Relaxant, Skeletal: A drug that inhibits contraction of voluntary muscles. [Dantrolene, Succinylcholine]
Muscle Relaxant, Smooth: A drug that inhibits contraction of visceral smooth muscles. [Aminophylline]
Mydriatic: An adrenergic drug used topically in the eye to induce dilation of the pupil [mydriasis]. [Phenylephrine]
N
Narcotic: A drug that induces action by reacting with opioid receptors of the CNS, or a drug legally classified as a narcotic with regard to prescribing regulations.
Narcotic Antagonist: A drug that reacts with opioid receptors asymptomatically, used to terminate the action of narcotic drugs. [Naloxone]
Neuromuscular Blocking Agent: A drug that paralyzes skeletal muscles by preventing transmission of neural impulses to them. [Succinylcholine]
Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug: An analgesic, anti-inflammatory drug that inhibits prostaglandin synthesis. [Indomethacin]
NSAID: see Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug.
O
Opioid: see Narcotic.
Opioid Antagonist: see Narcotic Antagonist.
Oxytoxic: A drug that stimulates uterine motility, used in obstetrics to initiate labor or to control postpartum hemorrhage. [Oxytocin]
Osmotic diuretic: An osmotic diuretic is a type of diuretic that inhibit reabsorption of water and sodium. Osmotic diuretics works by increasing blood flow to the kidney. This washes out the cortical medullary gradient in the kidney.
P
Parasympatholytic: A drug that inhibits response to parasympathetic nerve impulse and to parasympathomimetic drugs; an anti-cholinergic drug. [Atropine]
Parasympathomimetic: A drug that activates organs innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system; a cholinergic drug. [Neostigmine]
Pediculicide: An insecticide suitable for eradicating louse infestations [pediculosis]. [Lindane]
Penicillin Adjuvant: A drug that extends systemic duration of penicillin by inhibiting its renal excretion. [Probenecid]
Phenothiazine: An anti-psychotic or anti-depressant drug that contains the Phenothiazine nucleus in its chemical structure. [Chloropromazine, anti-psychotic; Imipramine, anti-depressant]
Photo-sensitizer: A drug that increases cutaneous response to ultraviolet light, used with ultraviolet light to treat certain skin diseases [e.g. psoriasis]. [Methoxsalen]
Pigmenting Agent: A drug that promotes melanin synthesis in the skin. [Trioxsalen, oral pigmenting agent; Methoxsalen, topical pigmenting agent]
Posterior Pituitary Hormone, Anti-diuretic: A hormone that promotes renal reabsorption of water, useful in treating diabetes insipidus. [Vasopressin injection]
Potassium-sparing Diuretics: A diuretic that does not make systemic potassium reduction as a side effect. [Triamterene]
Potentiator: An adjunctive drug that enhances the action of a primary drug, the total response being greater than the sum of the individual actions. [Hexafluorenium, potentiator for Succinylcholine]
Progestin: A progesterone-like hormone that stimulates the secretory phase of the uterine cycle. [Norethindrone]
Proton Pump Inhibitors: PPIs are a group of drugs whose main action is a pronounced and long-lasting reduction of gastric acid production. PPIs act by irreversibly blocking the H+/K+ ATPase of the gastric parietal cell. They are more effective than H2 antagonists and reduce gastric acid secretion by up to 99%. 
Prostaglandin: A drug from the classes of cell-regulating hormones cyclized from arachidonic acid. [Alprostadil, maintains ductus arteriosis patency in newborn infants pending corrective surgery for congenital heart defects]
Prostaglandin Synthesis Inhibitor: A drug that inhibits prostaglandin synthesis and prostaglandin-intended symptoms such as inflammation; a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug. [Ibuprofen]
Protectant: A topical drug that provides a physical barrier to the environment. [Zinc Gelatin, skin protectant; Methylcellulose, ophthalmic protectant]
Proteolytic, Injectable: An enzyme drug for injection into herniated lumber intervertebral discs to reduce interdiscal pressure. [Chymopapain]
Prothrombogenic: A drug with vitamin K activity, useful in treating the hypoprothrombinemia of vitamin K deficiency or overdosage with a vitamin K antagonist. [Phytonadione]
Psychedelic: A drug [especially a street drug] that induces vivid sensory phenomena and hallucinations. [Mescaline]
Psychotherapeutic: A drug used to treat abnormal metal or emotional processes. [Chlorpromazine, Haloperidol]
R
Rauwolfia Alkaloid: A plant principle derived from Rauwolfia serpentina and related species, with anti-hypertensive and anti-psychotic actions. [Reserpine]
Radiographic Agent: see X-Ray Contrast Medium.
Radiopharmaceutical: A drug containing a radioactive isotope, used for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. [Iodinated Albumen with 125I or 131I]
Resin, Electrolyte Removing: see Ion Exchange Resin.
Rubefacient: A topical drug that induces mild skin irritation with erythema, used as a toughening agent. [Rubbing Alcohol]
S
Salt Substitute: A sodium-free substance, alternative to sodium chloride, used for flavoring foods. [Potassium Chloride]
Scabicide: An insecticide suitable for eradication of the itch mite Sarcoptes scabiei [scabies]. [Lindane]
Sclerosing Agent: An irritant drug suitable for injection into varicose veins to induce their fibrosis and obliteration. [Morrhuate Sodium Injection]
Sedative: A central nervous system depressant used to induce mild relaxation. [Phenobarbital]
Specific: A drug specially adapted in its indicated use, usually because of a functional relationship between drug metabolism and disease patho-physiology.
Stimulant, Central: A drug that increases the functional state of the CNS, sometimes used in convulsion therapy of mental disorders. [Flurothyl]
Stimulant, Respiratory: A drug that selectively stimulates respiration, either by peripheral initiation of respiratory reflexes, or by selective CNS stimulation. [CO2, reflex respiratory stimulant; Ethamivan, central respiratory stimulant]
Sum Screening Agent: A skin protectant that absorbs light energy at wavelengths that cause sunburn. [Para-Amino-Benzoic Acid]
Sulfonylurea: An oral anti-diabetic drug that contains the sulfonylurea moiety in its chemical structure. [Tolazamide]
Suppressant: A drug that inhibits the progress of a disease but does not cure it.
Sympatholytic: A drug that inhibits response to sympathetic nerve impulses and to sympathomimetic drugs; an anti-adrenergic drug. [Phentolamine, alpha sympatholytic; Propranolol, beta sympatholytic]
Sympathomimetic: A drug that activates organs innervated by the sympathetic nervous system; an adrenergic drug. [Epinephrine]
Synergistic Effect: Sometimes a combination of two drugs is given because this can be significantly more effective than either compound alone.
Systemically Acting Drug: A drug administered so as to reach systemic circulation, from which the drug diffuses into all tissues, including the site of the therapeutic action.
T
Thiazide Diuretic: A diuretic that contains the benzothiadiazide [thiazide] moiety in its chemical structure. [Hydrochlorothiazide]
Thrombolytic: An enzyme drug administered parenterally to solubilize blood clots. [Urokinase]
Thyroid Hormone: A hormone that maintains metabolic function and normal metabolic rate of tissues. [Levothyroxine]
Topically Acting Drug: A drug applied to the body surface for local therapeutic action.
Toxoid: A modified anti-gen from an infectious organism used as a vaccine. [Tetanus Toxoid]
Tranquilizer: A drug [such as anti-psychotic] used to suppress an acutely disturbed emotional state. [Trifluroperazine, anti- psychotic]
Tranquilizer, Minor: An old term for an anxiolytic drug.
Tricyclic Anti-depressant: An anti-depressant that contains the Tricyclic Phenothiazine nucleus in its chemical structure. [Imipramine]
Tuberculostatic: see Anti-tubercular.
U
Uricosuric: A drug that promotes renal excretion of uric acid, useful in treating chronic gout. [Probenecid]
Uterine Contraction: An obstetric drug used after placenta delivery to induce sustained uterine contraction to reduce bleeding. [Methylergonovine]
Uterine Contraction Inhibitor: A drug that inhibits uterine muscle contraction, used in preterm labor to prolong gestation. [Ritodrine]
V
Vaccine: An anti-gen containing drug used to induce active immunity against an infectious disease. [Hepatitis B vaccine, Rabies Vaccine]
Vasoconstriction: A drug that narrows arterioles, usually to elevate blood pressure. See Vasopressor.
Vasodilator, Coronary: A drug that expands blood vessels in the heart and improves coronary blood flow, useful in treating angina pectoris; an anti-anginal drug. [Nitroglycerin]
Vasodilator, Peripheral: A drug expands peripheral blood vessels and improves blood flow to the extremities of the body. [Minoxidil]
Vasopressor: An adrenergic drug administered to constrict arterioles and elevate arterial blood pressure. [Norepinephrine]
Vinca Alkaloid: A plant principle derived from Vinca rosea and related species, with anti-neoplastic action. [Vincristine]
Vitamin: An organic chemical essential in small amounts for normal metabolism, used therapeutically to supplement the vitamin content of foods.
X
Xanthine Alkaloid: A plant principle chemically related to xanthine, with CNS stimulant, smooth muscle relaxant, and diuretic actions. [Caffeine]
X – Ray Contrast Medium: A drug opaque to x-rays that assists visualization of an internal organ during radiographic examination. [Barium Sulfate, Iopanoic Acid]